Method of reducing the likelihood of skin cancer in an individual human being

ABSTRACT

Compositions, systems and methods of improving the health of the microbiome of an individual&#39;s skin relate to the provision of skin contacting formulations containing beneficial bacteria and other microbe components to foster the growth and maintenance of a healthy skin microbiome.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/160,336, filed Oct. 15, 2018 (now U.S. Pat. No. 10,314,866, issued Jun. 11, 2019), which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/403,823, filed Jan. 11, 2017 (now U.S. Pat. No. 10,111,913, issued Oct. 30, 2018), which is a non-provisional of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/296,186, filed on Feb. 17, 2016.

This application is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/752,192 filed Jun. 26, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,549,842, issued Jan. 24, 2017), which is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/225,503 filed Mar. 26, 2014, (now issued U.S. Pat. No. 9,445,936, issued Sep. 20, 2016), which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/367,052, filed Feb. 6, 2012 (now issued U.S. Pat. No. 8,701,671, issuing on Apr. 22, 2014), which claims priority of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/439,652, filed on Feb. 4, 2011 and U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/556,023, filed on Nov. 4, 2011.

This application also is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/270,034, filed Sep. 20, 2016 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,750,802, issued Sep. 5, 2017), which is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/954,074, filed on Nov. 30, 2015 (now issued U.S. Pat. No. 9,457,077, issuing on Oct. 4, 2016), which is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/574,517, filed on Dec. 18, 2014 (now issued U.S. Pat. No. 9,408,880, issuing on Aug. 9, 2016), which claims priority of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. Nos. 62/072,476, filed on Oct. 30, 2014; 62/053,926, filed on Sep. 23, 2014; 62/014,855, filed on Jun. 20, 2014; and 61/919,297, filed on Dec. 20, 2013.

This application is also a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/228,454, filed Aug. 4, 2016 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,585,920, issued Mar. 7, 2017).

This application is also a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/611,458, filed Feb. 2, 2015, which is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/502,097, filed Sep. 30, 2014 (now issued U.S. Pat. No. 9,010,340, issuing on Apr. 21, 2015), which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14,307,651, filed on Jun. 18, 2014 (now issued U.S. Pat. No. 8,936,030, issuing Jan. 20, 2015), which is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/079,054, filed Nov. 13, 2013 (now issued U.S. Pat. No. 8,757,173, issuing on Jun. 24, 2014), which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/425,913, filed Mar. 21, 2012 (now issued U.S. Pat. No. 8,584,685, issuing on Nov. 19, 2013), and claims priority of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/467,767, filed Mar. 25, 2011.

This application is also a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/639,767, filed Jun. 30, 2017 (now issued U.S. Pat. No. 10,314,865, issuing Jun. 11, 2019), which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/437,976, filed Feb. 21, 2017 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,730,967, issued Aug. 15, 2017), which is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/228,454, filed Aug. 4, 2016 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,585,920, issued Mar. 7, 2017)

The entire disclosure of the prior applications are considered to be part of the disclosure of the accompanying application and are hereby incorporated by reference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

Compositions, systems and methods of improving the health of the microbiome of an individual's skin relate to the provision of skin contacting formulations containing beneficial bacteria and other microbe components to foster the growth and maintenance of a healthy skin microbiome.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The skin is the human body's largest organ, colonized by a diverse milieu of microorganisms. Colonization is driven by the ecology of the skin surface, which is highly variable depending on topographical location, endogenous host factors and exogenous environmental factors. Microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, and viruses are known to colonize the skin. Human skin continuously undergoes self-renewal, so resident microbial cells are shed in the process. Most of the microbes found on the skin are harmless to healthy individuals. Some are considered to be mutualistic organisms and confer health benefits to the skin by secreting, for example, antibacterial substances, preventing pathogen colonization, and influencing host immune responses. On the other hand, commensal microorganisms can cause diseases and infections if the physical barrier of the skin has been compromised due to trauma or injuries.

The skin and gastrointestinal (“GI”) tracts of humans are colonized by a diverse array of microorganisms beginning at the time of birth when an infant is exposed to the maternal microflora and other environmental microbes. From the time of initial colonization, the human microbiome remains in a state of flux where the composition of the resident microflora changes over time in response to factors intrinsic and extrinsic to the host.

Probiotics are so-called “good” microorganisms (typically bacteria) that are ingested (or contacted with a person) alive by an individual so that the introduced microorganisms can colonize the GI tract of the person. Conventional prebiotics are ingestible ingredients that selectively support the growth or survival of the “good” microorganisms which are desirably present in the GI tract. Conventional prebiotics are typically a nutrient source (e.g., fructooligosaccharide or galactooligosaccharide) that can be assimilated by one or more members of the GI microbiome, but which are not digestible by the human host.

Human skin is colonized by a diverse array of microorganisms, with such colonization beginning shortly after birth when an infant is exposed to the maternal microflora. From the time of initial colonization, the human microbiome changes over time in response to factors intrinsic and extrinsic to the host. The makeup of the human skin microbiome differs significantly from the makeup of the GI microbiome in terms of both the type and variety of microorganisms present.

Members of the GI and skin microbiomes utilize different nutrient sources due to, at least in part, the starkly contrasting environments in which the two microbiomes are found and the substrates available for use as food. Dietary requirements of microorganisms can vary significantly from one species to the next, and it is not uncommon for an agent that exhibits prebiotic activity on a particular microorganism to exhibit no prebiotic activity on a different microorganism. For example, prebiotics designed for the GI microbiota have historically been carbohydrate-based materials that serve as food for resident glycolytic driven microorganisms. The microflora present on the skin of a person, however, can include lipophilic organisms, which would not necessarily be expected to assimilate carbohydrates. Even the glycolytic microorganisms present on the skin may not utilize the same kinds of carbohydrates as GI microbes. The make-up of the GI and skin microbiomes of a human may vary significantly and there can also be significant variability in the make-up of the same microbiome between individuals. The surface of mammalian skin typically includes a wide variety of microorganisms, which may vary from species to species, individual to individual, and from location to location on an individual. Certain undesirable microorganisms, such as pathogenic bacteria, yeasts and molds, may attempt to colonize the skin and upset the balance of a healthy microbiome.

The development of molecular techniques to identify and quantify microbial organisms has revolutionized the microbial world. Genomic characterization of bacterial diversity relies on sequence analysis of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene, which is present in all bacteria and archaea. The 16S rRNA gene contains species-specific hypervariable regions, which allow taxonomic classification, and highly conserved regions, which act as a molecular clock and a binding site for PCR primers. Using current technologies, an organism does not need to be cultured to determine its type by 16S rRNA sequencing.

The global population is rapidly aging. Currently, 566 million people are 65 years old worldwide, with estimates of nearly 1.5 billion by 2050, particularly in developing countries. Infections constitute a third of mortality in people 65 years old. Moreover, lengthening life spans correlate with increased time in hospitals or long-term care facilities and exposure to drug-resistant pathogens. The risk of nosocomial infections increases with age, independent of duration spent in healthcare facilities. One theory is that as a person ages, their immune system changes and is less robust in addressing bacterial infections. By enhancing the microbiome of a person's skin as they age, it is believed that infections that would otherwise be encountered will be avoided, or at least the frequency and severity of the same will be decreased.

There is a long-felt need for effective treatments to enhance the health of an individual's skin. The present invention provides a method and system for satisfying such need.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

One aspect of the present invention is directed to the use of human specific species of bacteria that are then modified to enhance one or more characteristics deemed beneficial to the skin microbiome and health of the individual, including bacteria that have been modified via a CRISPR-Cas9 and/or Cpf1 system to either repress the expression of a particular protein or lipid, or to increase the production of beneficial microbial secretions. Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats from Prevotella and Francisella 1 or CRISPR/Cpf1 is a DNA-editing technology analogous to the CRISPR/Cas9 system. One objective is to avoid modifying an individual's human genome, but instead, to significantly affect the health of humans by employing modifications to the skin microbiome. Use of human specific strains of bacteria, whether they are commensal or pathogenic, including bacteria that are modified to alter their native pathogenicity, is one preferred aspect of many embodiments of the present invention.

Certain aspects of the present invention are directed to a method for altering the microbiome of an individual's skin by administering to a region of the skin of an individual an effective amount of a bacterial formulation. In one preferred embodiment, the individual is a newborn and the step of administering is performed within the first 6 hours of the newborn's birth. Such a bacterial formulation may be a lotion, ointment or gel adapted to be rubbed onto the newborn's skin. The bacteria included in the bacterial formulation may vary to address particular concerns or diseases. For example, the bacterial formulation may include bacteria selected from the group consisting of Nitrosomonas eutropha and Propionibacterium. More particularly, the equilibrium of a bacterial population of the region of the skin of the individual is modified to increase the number of Propionibacterium bacteria and to decrease the number of Staphylococcus bacteria on the individual's skin in such region. In other embodiments, the bacterial formulation includes the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus that has been modified by employing a CRISPR-Cas or Cpf1 system to interfere with S. aureus virulence regulation involving the Agr quorum-sensing signaling molecule. In several embodiments, the bacterial formulation comprises a bacteria that has a tropism specific for the human species. In others, the bacterial formulation comprises at least two of the bacteria selected from the group consisting of: Prevotella; Lactobacillus johnsonii; Bacteroides fragilis, Lactobacillus ruminus and L. infantitis. In certain embodiments the bacteria is an ammonia oxidizing bacteria. In other embodiments, the region of the skin to which the bacterial formulation is applied is the scalp. In various embodiments, rather than using a wild-type bacteria, the bacteria employed is one that has been modified by CRISPR-Cas or CRISPR-Cpf1 to delete a functional virulence factor from the bacteria. In particular embodiments, the method includes administering to the skin a bacteria that produces tomatidine. In others, the bacteria produces p53. Thus, in some embodiments, the method involves use of bacteria wherein a CRISPR-Cas or CRISPR-Cpf1 system is employed to insert a gene for the production of tomatidine and/or p53 into at least one of the bacteria in the bacterial formulation. In others, a CRISPR-Cas or CRISPR-Cpf1 system is employed to insert one or more genes into the bacteria comprising the bacterial formulation to facilitate the oxidizing of ammonia by the bacteria. To further enhance the ability of desired bacteria to be maintained on the skin of an individual, certain methods further comprise administering to the individual's skin a prebiotic that comprises a nutrient source for the bacteria that is assimilated by the bacteria, and preferably one that is not digestible by the individual. In particular embodiments, the method further includes administering to the skin an extract derived from a helminth selected from the group consisting of Capillaria hepatica, Dicrocoelium dendriticum, Ascaris lumbricoides, Enterobius vermicularis, Trichuris trichiura, Ancylostoma duodenale, Necator americanus, Strongyloides stercoralis, Haemonchus contortus, and Trichinella spiralis. In still others, the bacterial formulation includes at least one arabinogalactan. Yet others include at least one of the following: L. infantitis, and L. johnsonii. In a particular embodiment, the bacterial formulation includes at least one bacteria modified via a CRISPR-Cas system to express a gene encoding interferon regulatory factor 4.

In particular embodiments, in view of the tropism demonstrated by S. pyogenes for humans, and the recognition that such bacterial species is found in both the oral and skin microbiome of humans, S. pyogenes is a preferred bacterial species to employ in various embodiments of the present invention.

In still other embodiments, the focus is on interspecies interactions within mixed microbial communities, with the objective being to modify competitive relationships involving nonbiocidal biosurfactants, enzymes, and metabolites produced by bacteria and other microorganisms in a manner such that selection of particular bacterial species can be employed to inhibit initial adhesion, trigger matrix degradation, encourage jamming of cell-cell communications, and induce biofilm dispersion. Nonbiocidal molecules are thus employed to modify competitive interactions within biofilms in a manner that promotes the overall health of an individual's microbiome, especially on the skin.

In certain embodiments, a bacterial formulation is applied to newborns within a critical window of time after birth, preferably within the first 24 hours of the newborn's birth, more preferably within 6 hours of their birth, even more preferably within 3 hours of birth, and most preferably within an hour after their birth. The administration can be by several methods, but preferably is a lotion, ointment or gel that is rubbed onto the newborn's skin, preferably all over his/her entire body. A spray or mist can also be applied that contains the bacterial and microbe formulations as set forth herein. While not bound by theory, the critical window to apply to the newborn's skin the referenced formulations, e.g. microbial mixtures of bacteria beneficial in triggering immune system development, is within a relatively short time period and is necessary to establish immune tolerance to a variety of commensal microbes. The way and content of microbes presented at a time in which a newborn has his/her skin colonized establishes immune tolerance to particular commensal microbes. The influx of highly activated T cells into neonatal skin is believed to occur in such critical window. So a mother of a newborn has a choice: to simply rely upon chance as to what particular microbes might be present during this critical window of the newborn's establishing immune tolerance to particular bacteria and other microbes; or to provide the newborn with a selected formulation containing predetermined microbes such that the newborn's developing immune system can properly react to the microbes in the predetermined formulation, and thus provide the newborn with the opportunity to develop a more expansive immune tolerance profile. It is believed that the mechanism that promotes tolerance is tissue specific, and thus, the skin and the gut may have different ways by which they mediate tolerance to commensal microbes. To establish a healthy status of a newborn's skin as it relates to commensal microbes on its skin, the particular type of microbes, including bacteria, brought into contact with his/her skin is achieved in a certain time period after birth (e.g. within 1 to 24 hours after birth) so that the developing immune system of the infant establishes tolerance to such microbes, thus avoiding allergies, autoimmune diseases and other related diseases, as well as chronic inflammation of the skin.

In certain embodiments of the present invention, the skin microbiome is enhanced via providing microbes able to metabolize lipids, proteins and carbohydrates, and thus, produce acid that aids in maintaining the so-called “acid mantel” of the skin. In preferred embodiments the bacteria that is modified has a very narrow host tropism, such that the bacteria are specific for the human species and thus, their modification poses little if any risk to other animals or organisms.

Other embodiments are directed to combating infections of a person's skin by the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus. Staphylococcus aureus is a commensal and pathogen of both humans and cattle. In certain embodiments the accessory gene regulator (Agr) system and the virulence regulation of S. aureus pathogenesis is modified to delete or to at least reduce the virulence of the bacteria. In such a way, the present invention provides a way to effectively combat S. aureus infections. In various embodiments of the present invention, CRISPR-Cas9 and/or Cpf1 systems are employed to render ineffective virulence factors of such bacteria involved with the establishment and propagation of infection. Several molecules have been found to interfere with S. aureus virulence regulation, especially those targeting the Agr quorum-sensing signaling molecule. By modification of this bacterial species using CRISPR-Cas and/or Cpf1 it is possible to achieve broad-spectrum inhibitory effects on most S. aureus strains and Agr subtypes.

The tropism of individual bacteria for particular host tissues (e.g., skin vs. respiratory tract vs. gastrointestinal tract) is determined by the array of available adhesion-receptor pairs. In preferred embodiments, bacteria having substantial, if not entire, human host specificity are employed. For example, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi, known to be the bacteria responsible for typhoid fever, a life-threatening human disease, demonstrates strict human host specificity. In certain embodiments, the virulence factors of such bacteria are compromised by being modified via the CRISPR-Cas or Cpf1 system to render the modified bacteria as non-pathogenic. Similarly, the bacteria Neisseria, the causative agent of gonorrhea, is a disease restricted to humans, and thus similar CRISPR-Cas and/or Cpf1 systems may be employed to reduce if not eliminate the virulence factors of such bacteria. Likewise, Helicobacter pylori is known to be an etiologic agent of gastritis and peptic ulcer disease in humans. The iron acquisition system of H. pylori by the human lactoferrin receptor system is believed to play a major role in the virulence of H. pylori infection. The CRISPR-Cas and/or Cpf1 systems may be employed to reduce if not eliminate the virulence factors of this bacteria. Yet another bacteria demonstrating human tropism is Haemophilus influenza, a Gram negative species that requires heme and has exclusive human host specificity. In certain embodiments, the CRISPR-Cas and/or Cpf1 systems may be employed to reduce if not eliminate the virulence factors of such bacteria. The distinction between throat and skin group A Streptococcus has become blurred and to date there have been few advances in treatment of group A Streptococcus skin infections. Certain aspects of the present invention include the modification of skin group A Streptococcus to reduce the likelihood, if not prevent, related skin diseases, including eczema, atopic dermatitis, acne, allergic inflammation, skin hypersensitivity, UV-induced skin damage, and skin cancer.

One particular aspect of certain embodiments of the present invention relates to the treatment of acne. Acne is the most common skin disease accounting for a quarter of dermatologists' patient volume. Acne is a chronic disease that can significantly impact an individual's quality of life with social, psychological and emotional impairments. Thus, in various embodiments, bacteria are selected that, once applied to an individual's skin, is able to ameliorate acme. Such bacteria include preferably ammonia oxidizing bacteria, preferably provided to a person's skin in combination with a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. In certain embodiments, bacteria are employed to achieve topical nitric oxide release at or near the surface of the skin and addition of urea or ammonium salts to the skin provides additional substrates that these bacteria utilize to form nitrite. While not intending to be limited thereby, such ammonia oxidizing bacteria may be selected from the group consisting of Nitrosomonas, Nitrosococcus, Nitrosospira, Nitrosocystis, Nitrosolobus, Nitrosovibrio, and combinations thereof. In some instances, the ammonia oxidizing bacteria is Nitrosomonas eutropha (N. eutropha). Such ammonia-oxidizing bacteria are employed to improve skin health and are able to convert ammonia to nitrite, an anti-microbial compound, and nitric oxide. Various aspects of the present invention are directed at restoring and maintaining the delicate balance of the skin microbiome.

The present invention in various embodiments is directed to a variety of consumer products including cosmetic products such as skin care products (bath preparations, skin washing and cleaning products, skin care products, eye cosmetics, lip care products, nail care products, intimate hygiene preparations, foot care), those with special effects (sunscreens, tanning agents, deodorants, anticholinergics, depilatories, shaving, fragrance), those for oral or dental hygiene and those for hair care (shampoos, conditioners, etc.)

One objective of the present invention is to achieve various health and cosmetic benefits by providing a healthy, balanced skin microbiome. Modified bacteria that are beneficial to the skin, especially those modified using CRISPR-Cas systems, are used to enhance the beneficial characteristics of skin microbiomes in a manner that purposefully exposes skin to microbes, rather than the conventional use of anti-bacterial agents to kill bacteria—including beneficial bacteria—on a person's skin. The adherence to the skin of problem flora, such as pathogenic bacteria and yeast, has been associated with numerous ailments, including skin infections, diaper rash, urinary or vaginal infections, and malodors. Use of the present invention addresses such issues in a novel and non-obvious manner.

Other embodiments are directed to prebiotic agents for use on skin. In preferred embodiments, CRISPR-Cas and/or Cpf1 modified bacteria, especially those demonstrating total or substantial tropism for humans, are employed in one or more of the above referenced products, with certain features, namely, virulence factors reduced if not eliminated. In such a manner, there is a competitive inhibition of undesired bacteria with the modified bacteria as set forth herein. In certain embodiments, the cleansing of one's skin to effectively reduce by at least about 50%, more preferably about 30%, and most preferably to reduce by at least about 25%, of native bacteria on an individual's skin portion to be addressed, is performed prior to purposefully contacting the individual's skin with one or more bacteria, and in particular, bacterial species that have been modified via employment of a CRISPR-Cas and/or Cpf1 system to reduce if not effectively compromise the virulence factors of such bacteria, and more preferably a bacteria that has a host specificity exclusive to humans.

In one particular embodiment, bacteria are modified via a CRISPR-Cas system to express a gene identified for grey hair—interferon regulatory factor 4 (IRF4). This gene is involved in regulating production and storage of melanin, the pigment that determines hair, skin and eye color. Hair greying is caused by an absence of melanin in hair. Thus, on various embodiments, bacteria are modified to express IRF4 and topical application of such bacteria to an individual's scalp provides for the prevention of hair turning grey as it otherwise would without such application of such bacteria. In still other embodiments, bacteria are modified to express levels of melanin to maintain hair color when such modified bacteria are contacted with the scalp of an individual.

One will appreciate that this Summary of the Invention is not intended to be all encompassing and that the scope of the invention nor its various embodiments, let alone the most important ones, are necessarily encompassed by the above description. One of skill in the art will appreciate that the entire disclosure, as well as the incorporated references, figures, etc. will provide a basis for the scope of the present invention as it may be claimed now and in future applications.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows where various bacteria reside on the human skin, which varies by region of the body and that depends upon whether the skin site is oily, moist or dry.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION

The present invention stands in contract to accepted methods of dealing with skin and bacteria issues (which largely solely involve killing bacteria, etc—such as described in Kimberly Clark's U.S. Pat. No. 8,110,215 to Koenig, et al.) In contrast, various embodiments of the present invention are directed to modification of various bacteria on a person's skin so as to reduce the pathogenicity thereof and to rely upon competitive inhibition of such modified bacteria on the skin to reduce the presence of pathogenic bacteria on an individual's skin.

As set forth above, in particular embodiments of the present invention, contacting the skin of a newborn is performed to address the proper triggering of the newborn's immune system development. Thus, certain aspects of the present invention are directed to a method for altering the microbiome of an individual's skin by administering to a region of the skin of a newborn within the first 6 hours of the newborn's birth a particular bacterial formulation. Such a bacterial formulation may be a lotion, ointment or gel adapted to be rubbed onto the newborn's skin. The bacteria included in the bacterial formulation may vary to address particular concerns or diseases. For example, the bacterial formulation may include bacteria selected from the group consisting of Nitrosomonas eutropha and Propionibacterium. More particularly, the equilibrium of a bacterial population of the region of the skin of the individual is modified to increase the number of Propionibacterium bacteria and to decrease the number of Staphylococcus bacteria on the individual's skin in such region. In other embodiments, the bacterial formulation includes the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus that has been modified by employing a CRISPR-Cas or Cpf1 system to interfere with S. aureus virulence regulation involving the Agr quorum-sensing signaling molecule. In several embodiments, the bacterial formulation comprises a bacteria that has a tropism specific for the human species. In others, the bacterial formulation comprises at least two of the bacteria selected from the group consisting of: Prevotella; Lactobacillus johnsonii; Bacteroides fragilis, Lactobacillus ruminus and L. infantitis. In certain embodiments the bacteria is an ammonia oxidizing bacteria. In other embodiments, the region of the skin to which the bacterial formulation is applied is the scalp. In various embodiments, rather than using a wild-type bacteria, the bacteria employed is one that has been modified by CRISPR-Cas or CRISPR-Cpf1 to delete a functional virulence factor from the bacteria. In particular embodiments, the method includes administering to the skin a bacteria that produces tomatidine. In others, the bacteria produces p53. Thus, in some embodiments, the method involves use of bacteria wherein a CRISPR-Cas or CRISPR-Cpf1 system is employed to insert a gene for the production of tomatidine and/or p53 into at least one of the bacteria in the bacterial formulation. In others, a CRISPR-Cas or CRISPR-Cpf1 system is employed to insert one or more genes into the bacteria comprising the bacterial formulation to facilitate the oxidizing of ammonia by the bacteria. To further enhance the ability of desired bacteria to be maintained on the skin of an individual, certain methods further comprise administering to the individual's skin a prebiotic that comprises a nutrient source for the bacteria that is assimilated by the bacteria, and preferably one that is not digestible by the individual. In particular embodiments, the method further includes administering to the skin an extract derived from a helminth selected from the group consisting of Capillaria hepatica, Dicrocoelium dendriticum, Ascaris lumbricoides, Enterobius vermicularis, Trichuris trichiura, Ancylostoma duodenale, Necator americanus, Strongyloides stercoralis, Haemonchus contortus, and Trichinella spiralis. In still others, the bacterial formulation includes at least one arabinogalactan. Yet others include at least one of the following: L. infantitis, and L. johnsonii. In a particular embodiment, the bacterial formulation includes at least one bacteria modified via a CRISPR-Cas system to express a gene encoding interferon regulatory factor 4.

As for lotions of the present invention, in preferred embodiments, there is an objective to limit if not preclude the use of phthalates, which are extremely toxic and are believed to also be human carcinogens. Thus, in preferred embodiments of the present invention, such lotions do not employ such toxic agents, and in particular agents toxic to bacterial species for which the inventors suggest be used, e.g. those modified to reduce pathogenicity, virulence factors, etc, so as to establish a population of such modified bacteria on a person's skin, and in such a manner, reduce the incidence of skin infections and diseases. Thus, lotions, creams, gels, etc. that include such toxic agents, including but not limited to phthalates, are not employed, but rather, lotions that provide an environment for the bacteria as set forth herein to survive and to thus be available to provide benefits to the skin of individuals to which they are applied, are particularly preferred.

Healthy, normal skin exhibits a slightly acidic pH in the range of 4.2-5.6, which aids in the prevention of pathogenic bacterial colonization, regulation of enzyme activity, and maintenance of a moisture-rich environment; however, after the age of 70, the pH of skin rises significantly, stimulating protease activity. Thus, one objective of several embodiments of the present invention is directed to lowering the pH of the skin of an individual, especially those at about the age of 70, so as to encourage a skin environment conducive to the proliferation of one or more bacteria that have been modified to promote skin health and to reduce the ability of undesired bacteria from colonizing the skin of the person. Probiotic metabolism frequently produces acidic molecules, lowering the pH of the surrounding environments seen with Lactobacilli producing free fatty acids (FFAs) and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) during the fermentation process. Thus, the use of probiotics is employed to restore the normal skin pH and consequently return protease activity levels closer to those seen in young, healthy skin.

The main microbes that reside on human skin can be divided into four phyla: Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, and Bacteroidetes. Staphylococcus spp. and Corynebacterium spp. are the dominant bacteria at the genus level.

Significantly fewer Corynebacterium spp. have been observed in cachexia patients compared to healthy subjects. These results suggest that the presence of cancer and cachexia alters human skin bacterial communities. Understanding the changes in microbiota during cancer cachexia may lead to new insights into the syndrome.

Competitive inhibition is relied upon in various embodiments to advance the repopulation of skin with beneficial microbes. In one embodiment, repopulating an individual's skin with beneficial bacteria, preferably in balanced percentages and having preferred species provided, can be used in conjunction with an antimicrobial composition. Preferably, an antimicrobial is first administered to suppress or eradicate the resident populations of bacteria on a person's skin, including any abnormal organisms or pathogenic bacteria, then the normal flora is repopulated by the administration of at least one of the modified bacteria as described herein, including those modified using CRISPR-Cas and/or Cpf1 systems to delete certain portions of genes or to add certain genes to facilitate the colonization of a person's skin with beneficial bacteria that maintain the general health of a person's skin.

It is preferred that the antimicrobial treatment is complete before the administration of modified bacteria that are desirable to maintain skin health, including modified bacteria of the following: Firmicutes (mainly Streptococcus and Staphylococcus) and Actinobacteria (mainly Corynebacterium and Propionibacterium). By employing such modified bacteria, one is able to establish and maintain the reduction if not preclusion of various skin diseases, including skin cancer. One objective of the present invention is to provide a method and system that, by using health promoting strains from the microbiome in topical probiotics, it is possible to treat and to further reduce the risk of skin cancer.

Repair of tissue wounds is a fundamental process to re-establish tissue integrity and regular function. Infection is a major factor that hinders wound healing. Multicellular organisms have evolved an arsenal of host-defense molecules, including antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), aimed at controlling microbial proliferation and at modulating the host's immune response to a variety of biological or physical insults. Certain embodiments of the present invention are directed to the use of AMPs as endogenous mediators of wound healing. Thus, one aspect of several embodiments of the present invention is directed to genetically manipulating bacterial species native to the skin. Staphylococcus epidermidis, which is found in abundance on human skin, can cause immune tolerance in some—but in others, inflammation and activation of T cells against the bacteria. The present inventors submit that the immune system may set up tolerance to commensal bacteria only early in life, during a time where there is an influx of regulatory T cells unique to the skin, e.g. during the first week after birth. This colonization of the skin by regulatory T cells—immune cells that dampen the responses of effector T cells—is believed to be required for tolerance to S. epidermidis. There is an abrupt wave of regulatory T cell infiltration into neonatal skin that occurs at a defined period and this window dictates the achievement of commensal-specific tolerance.

One aspect of the present invention is directed to the introduction of tolerance to commensal bacteria during the time the developmental window is still open, thus providing the individual with life-long protection from a variety of diseases. Still other embodiments, however, are directed to introducing tolerance following the closing of the developmental window, e.g. after the first week after birth, so that individuals can purposefully be induced to have commensal-specific tolerance as an adult. Understanding which microbes cause infection and which are tolerated and the critical time frames where the immune status is set is one aspect of the present invention.

Skin bacterial communities are influenced by ethnicity, lifestyle and/or geographic location. Skin bacterial communities that are particularly employed in the modifications as set forth herein include: Firmicutes, Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria); Firmicutes (mainly Streptococcus and Staphylococcus) and Actinobacteria (mainly Corynebacterium and Propionibacterium), while still other preferred bacteria include L. acidophilus NCFM, L. salivarius Ls-33, Bifidobacterium lactis 420, L. acidophilus La-14 and Propionibacterium jensenii P 63.

In various embodiments, cosmetics are provided that provide for a medium favorable for maintaining a desired physico-chemical balance of the skin without favoring the development of pathogenic microorganisms. To achieve this objective, certain oligosaccharides that are metabolized by several beneficial strains of the skin microflora, such as Micrococcus kristinae, Micrococcus sedentarius, Staphylococcus capitis, Corynebacterium xerosis and Lactobacillus pentosus, are employed in formulations, in conjunction with one or more of the modified bacteria as described herein.

Pathogenic strains such as Staphylococcus aureus, Gardnerella vaginalis and Propionibacterium acnes do not typically metabolize, or very slightly metabolize, these oligosaccharides. In certain embodiments, these sugar sources are provided in amounts and in association with beneficial bacteria, whether they be those modified as described herein, or those that are naturally non-pathogenic in nature, so as to achieve the colonization of the skin in a fashion to provide the health benefits sought. In particular embodiments, oligosaccharides are employed in formulations for the skin that include one or more of Lactobacillus pentosus, Micrococcus kristinae, Gardnerella vaginalis, Propionibacterium avidum and Propionibacterium granulosum. As stated herein above, it is often beneficial to further acidify the culture medium, and this can be achieved, for example, by employing Lactobacilli to produce in particular lactic acid to achieve pH reducing effects.

In certain embodiments, the present invention is directed to cosmetic compositions having at least one oligosaccharide chosen from the group consisting of gluco-oligosaccharides, fructo-oligosaccharides, and galacto-oligosaccharides and mixtures thereof. In addition to the oligosaccharide constituent, the cosmetic compositions of particular embodiments of the invention may contain other ingredients, but caution is warranted as one objective is to avoid incorporating ingredients whose properties would interfere with the development of the beneficial skin microflora and the preservation of acidic conditions. Thus, it is advisable to avoid incorporating bactericidal ingredients in proportions which would annihilate the endogenous microflora, or ingredients which confer a pronounced basic character on the composition. For example, in preferred embodiments, reduction if not elimination of ionic surface-active agents, such as sodium lauryl sulfate, is advisable, as well as other well known agents having bactericidal properties. Instead, use of a non-ionic surface-active agent such as an alkyl glucoside or a dialkyl ester may be employed in various embodiments. Preferably, cosmetic compositions of the invention contain an acidic buffer which adjusts the pH of the composition to about pH 4 to 7 range, preferably about 5 to 6.5 pH. At such range, especially on the lower side, mutualistic flora such as Staphylococci, Micrococci, Corynebacterium and Propionibacteria preferably grow but not transient bacteria such as Gram negative bacteria like Escherichia and Pseudomonas or Gram positive ones such as Staphylococcus aureus or Candida albicans.

One aspect of the present invention relates to cosmetic products that include skin probiotics having viable organisms purposefully included, especially those genetically designed (as by CRISPR systems) so as to confer health benefits to the skin without the dangers of bacterial infections and inflammation. Indeed, certain other aspects of various embodiments are directed to the reduction of body odor by use of a probiotic skin formulation that can be provided to consumers as a lotion, spray, roll-on etc. Thus, stimulating the growth of certain bacteria and microbes, while deterring the growth of others, to arrive at an acceptable odor prevention formulation, is one of the general objectives of various embodiments.

Certain other embodiments are directed to the rebalancing of the skin microbiota using antimicrobials with selective action. For example, in certain embodiments a balance of species and characteristics is sought to provide skin formulations that maintain a well-balanced bacterial flora, and especially one that includes one or more of the modified bacteria as described herein. Thus, one particular aspect of various embodiments is directed to the provision of embodiments targeted to reduce undesired body odor (and in various embodiments, actively provides micorbes that generate desired odors and reduces the affects of malodors by other bacteria) which can be gender specific.

Thus, in certain embodiments, a system and method is provided that offers the interactions between bacteria and precursors of thiols—an organosulfur compound responsible for some of the more pungent qualities of onion, garlic and human sweat. In human adults, smell associated with sweat originates from apocrine glands located in the armpit, and the odor results from the degradation of the excretion of these glands by bacteria in the armpit.

Particular embodiments are directed to anti-deodorants used specifically for under a person's arm. In various formulations of the present invention, the use of bacteria able to generate lactic acid to serve as a moisturizing factor, still others that produce hyaluronic acid to improve skin hydration and elasticity, and that include sphingomyelinase to generate ceramide to enhance skin barrier function, are preferred compositions. As one of skill in the art will appreciate, while various embodiments of the present invention are directed to cosmetics, others are admittedly directed to formulations having claims for effects that include skin protection, and modification of cellular structure or function and thus, may be considered a drug under the FD&C Act. One aspect of the present invention is directed to restoring homeostasis to treat certain skin diseases by remedying the dysbiosis in the skin habitat by establishing a desired colony of various diverse bacteria, especially those modified as described herein to establish and maintain a healthy skin condition on an individual's skin.

The antiperspirant market is currently dominated by topically applied products based on aluminum or zirconium salts which are intended to prevent, or at least control, localized perspiration at the skin surface, particularly on the underarm. Deodorants are formulations that are designed either to mask malodor or to prevent or hinder its formation. The latter method usually comprises reducing and/or controlling the re-growth of the local micro-organism populations, or targeting preferentially those bacteria such as a sub-class of Coryne bacteria which contribute disproportionately to axillary odor generation, or interrupting the pathways by which malodors are formed from secretions. Aluminum or zirconium salts provide deodorancy benefits even at a level below the commonly accepted threshold for significant antiperspirancy to be observed.

A principal disadvantage of many antiperspirants is that they contain one or more commonly employed ingredients which are perceptibly unfriendly to human skin in those areas of the body to which the formulations are normally applied. Such ingredients are perceived to exhibit an adverse effect, in particular an irritant effect, on a user's skin following application of the antiperspirant salt-containing formulation. In one embodiment of the present invention, bacteria species are employed that have been modified via CRISPR-Cas systems to reduced malodor without the employment of aluminum or zirconium salts. Such modified bacteria suppress malodor and counteract or suppress sweat malodor. Even more preferred bacteria have been modified to express compounds of a pleasant and desirable scent. Such bacteria can thus provide amounts of a perfume scent that is pleasant to a person and that can at least partially mask the unpleasant body odor smells produced by a person. Splicing in such “perfume” genes into bacteria using the CRISPR-Cas system is one way to accomplish this objective. Use of such bacteria on a person's skin, and in particular under armpits where the particular type of bacteria is selected to grow and out-complete other microbes in such a moister environment (as compared to elbows, etc.) can be used to enhance the desired smells of one's body while limiting the amount of traditional antiperspirants and deodorants conventionally employed. Still other embodiments include the use of bacteria that utilize as their food source the very bacteria that produce malodors. In such a fashion the desired bacteria feed off of the products produced by undesired bacteria on a person's skin, and in particular under an individual's arm, so that undesired body odor is reduced and without the use of traditional chemicals and compounds as previously discussed.

To further comply with written description and enablement requirements, the following patents and patent publications are also incorporated herein by this reference in their entireties: are the following: U.S. Pat. No. 8,815,538 to Lanzalaco, et al.; 20150374607 to Lanzalaco, et al.; 20150361436 to Hitchcock et al.; 20150353901 to Liu et al.; U.S. Pat. No. 5,518,733 to Lamothe, et al.; 20150259728 to Cutliffe et al. U.S. Pat. No. 8,685,389 to Baur; 20140065209 to Putaala et al.; U.S. Pat. No. 8,481,299 to Gueniche; WO 2011029701 to Banowski; 20150071957 to Kelly; 20150202136 to Lanzalaco; 20150017227 to Kim; U.S. Pat. No. 7,820,420 to Whitlock; 20150202136 to Lanzalaco et al.; U.S. Pat. No. 5,518,733 to Lamothe, et al.; U.S. Pat. No. 8,815,538 to Lanzalaco et. al; U.S. Pat. No. 8,951,775 to Castiel; WO 2006/07922; U.S. Pat. No. 9,234,204 to Qvit-Raz et al.; U.S. Pat. No. 8,758,764 to Masignani, et al.; U.S. Pat. No. 9,028,841 to Henn et al.; 20160008412 to Putaala et al., 20150064138 to Lu; 20150017227 to Kim; United States Patent Application No. 20160314281 to Apte; 20160151427 to Whitlock et al.; 20140044677 to Raz et al.; 20160168594 to Zhang et al. U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,267,975; 9,288,981; United States Patent Application No. 20160122806; U.S. Pat. No. 9,234,204 to Noga Qvit-Raz; US20120301452; 20160271189 to Cutcliffe; US Pat. Applic. No. 2008242543; 20160040216 to Wilder; and United States Patent Application No. 20160089315 to Kleinberg, et al. and 20070148136 to Whitlock et al. Skin is composed of a variety of niches, including regions with a broad range of pH, temperature, moisture, and sebum content. Furthermore, skin structures such as hair follicles, sebaceous, eccrine, and apocrine glands comprise subhabitats that may be associated with their own unique microbiota. Microorganisms that colonize the skin include Staphylococcus epidermidis and other coagulase negative staphylococci. Other microorganisms that are generally regarded as skin colonizers include coryneforms of the phylum Actinobacteria (the genera Corynebacterium, Propionibacterium and Brevibacterium) and the genus Micrococcus. Modification of such bacteria via CRISPR-Cas and/or Cpf1 systems to enhance positive and beneficial aspects of such bacteria is one aspect of various embodiments of the present invention.

One aspect of certain embodiments is directed to the topical administration of probiotic bacteria, and/or soluble metabolites of probiotic bacteria and/or a cell lysates of probiotic bacteria that can improve Tight Junction (TJ) function in the epithelium. The probiotic bacteria is preferably provided in the form of a soluble metabolite with a formulation in a cream, lotion, spray, solution, gel, ointment, bioadhesive or suspension, or strip, especially one having encapsulated formulations inside. The formulations described herein are markedly different from natural counterparts due to their modification, e.g. via CRISPR-Cas systems as described herein. While some embodiments are directed to a product, others are directed to a method, and thus, the later are not all limited to the products described herein.

Thus, in one embodiment the invention relates to a cosmetic method for treating a non allergic irritant contact dermatitis of an individual in need thereof by administering to an individual an active agent comprising an effective amount of at least one a probiotic microorganism selected from the genus Lactobacillus sp. and/or Bifidobacterium sp., preferably Lactobacillus johnsonii to limit skin irritation, and in particular, a skin infection caused by methycilin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus. Administration is preferably by topical application of a pharmaceutical composition comprising at least about 1.5% by weight of the bacterium.

The skin is a natural barrier to the penetration of foreign substances. As the skin barrier is compromised, the skin is subject to inflammatory events from percutaneous absorption of irritants through the stratum corneum. Skin barrier function can be compromised by environmental irritants, mechanical abrasion, continuous tissue load pressure, exposure to body fluids and waste such as proteases, ureases and lipases, and especially those that cause an alkaline pH, and exposure to chemicals. Personal care products are an integral part of people's routines and habits, and thus, one aspect of the present invention is to provide skin probiotics to contribute to the promotion of human health.

Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus aureus make up about 5% of skin bacteria, with the diverse culture on the skin also including bacteria primarily from four phyla: Actinobacteria, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, and Bacteroidetes. It is known that females generally have more Staphylococcus living in their skin microbiomes (usually Staphylococcus epidermidis) and that men have more Corynebacterium living in their skin microbiomes.

Properly adjusted, the skin microflora can aid in immunity development and maintenance. In certain embodiments, CRISPR-Cas or Cpf1 systems are employed to modify Pseudomonas aeruginosa, typically a mutualistic bacterium but one that can turn into a pathogen and cause disease. Using the referenced CRISPR systems, virulence factors are compromised or excised in a manner that makes such bacterium much safer to employ, and reducing substantially its pathogenic capabilities, such that population of a person's skin with such modified bacteria causes conditions of competitive inhibition of other pathogenic wild type bacteria of the same species. The use of such modified bacteria is therefore useful in preventing wild type strains form gaining entry into the blood system where it is known to cause infections in bone, joint, gastrointestinal, and respiratory systems, as well as dermatitis. Moreover, while virulence factors are excised or reduced by modification, other aspects of the bacteria re maintained, such as its production of antimicrobial substances such as pseudomonic acid, such that infections caused by staphylococcal and streptococcal are reduced, as well as the growth of fungus species such as Candida krusei, Candida albicans, Torulopsis glabrata, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Aspergillus fumigates, and importantly, the use of such modified bacteria can inhibit the growth of Helicobacter pylori. Other bacteria that may be modified to reduce if not eliminate various compounds from being produced by bacteria that ordinarily are known to generate undesired orders include Propionibacteria, which can turn amino acids into propionic acid, Staphylococcus epidermidis, which breaks human sweat into isovaleric acid (3-methyl butanoic acid), and Bacillus subtilis, which creates malodorous compounds that lead to foot odor.

In certain embodiments, one aspect of the present invention is directed to the treatment of acne by using probiotic treatments that include effective amounts of Staphylococcus epidermidis and/or Lactobacillus plantarum to inhibit P. acnes growth, which are believed to produce succinic acid, shown to inhibit P. acnes growth. CRISPR-Cas and/or Cpf1 systems are used to modify such bacteria in a manner that reduces the occurrence of acne, such as by altering the expression of genes so that the amount of succinic acid on a person's skin is increased.

Still other aspects of certain embodiments are directed to treating individuals with atopic dermatitis, a disease that is associated with low bacterial diversity due to colonization by S. aureus, with such treatment including the purposeful application of a formulation that contains effective amounts of S. epidermidis to inhibit S. aureus growth. Preferably the skin bacteria population should demonstrate high levels of Bacteroides and low levels of Firmicutes. Thus, application of probiotics to a person's skin to achieve such a desired ratio of bacterial species is one aspect of various embodiments of the present invention, with preferred embodiments including the use of CRISPR-Cas systems to modify selected bacteria in a manner that enhances their abilities to reside on a person's skin.

Yet another aspect of certain embodiments is directed to addressing the population of Psoriasis vulgaris on a person's skin, which is typically found on drier skin sites such as elbows and knees. Dry areas of the skin tend to have high microbial diversity and fewer populations than sebaceous sites. Use of beneficial bacteria, especially those modified via the CRISPR-Cas and Cpf1 systems to enhance certain characteristics of friendly beneficial bacteria, such as the amount of lipids produced, so as to remedy dry skin conditions, is one aspect of the present invention. Thus, in certain embodiments, taking resident species of bacteria from a person's skin in a dry area and modifying such bacteria so as to increase the amount of lipids produced by such bacteria, and preferably enhancing particular other characteristics of such bacteria so as to competitively inhibit other undesired bacteria from occupying those skin areas, is one method for enhancing the health of the person's dry skin areas.

In the context of various embodiments, the use of antibiotic soaps should be avoided so as to permit the beneficial bacteria as described herein to generate positive conditions for beneficial bacteria growth and maintenance. Thus, to reduce the opportunity for more organisms to develop a resistance to some of the substances, such as Triclosan, and the removal of skin lipids alcohols and detergents by detergents and soaps, such substances should be avoided when employing the beneficial bacteria formulations described herein, unless such use is performed prior to application thereof in a manner to reduce the number of undesired bacteria first, followed preferably by a removal of such antibacterial substances so that the desired bacteria can be administered in a fashion that they prosper on the skin.

Damaged skin has also been found to be more frequently colonized by Staphylococcus hominis, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococci and Candida. Thus, by topical application of effective amounts of the beneficial bacteria as described herein, especially those modified via the CRISPR systems, it is possible to combat these undesired bacteria and promote the health of an individual's skin microbiome.

Yet other aspects of the present invention relate to the skin on a person's head, and in particular, relates to the maintenance of hair growth on the human scalp. Sulfation of minoxidil to generate ninoxidil sulfate is required to achieve the hair growth effect but minoxidil sulfate is unstable, and thus cannot be administered as is. Sulfotransferase enzyme can be used to sulfonate minoxidil to its therapeutic form. In one embodiment of the invention, sulfotransferase enzyme genes are provided via a CRISPR-Cas system such that modified bacteria are able to produce such enzyme in a manner that converts minoxidil to its therapeutic form.

Psoriasis is a chronic, genetically based, immune-mediated inflammatory disorder of the skin, present in about 2% of the world's population. The causes of psoriasis are poorly understood. The disease appears to result from a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Certain skin bacteria, namely Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes, play a role in the induction and maintenance of psoriasis. Modification of the microbiome of an individual, including not only the gut, but the skin microbiome, and especially employing a lotion that includes a probiotic modified (via CRISPR-Cas systems) bacteria, as described herein, is one effective way in which to treat Psoriasis and reduce its negative effects.

One objective of the present invention is to provide a method and system to achieve a balanced microbial community in order to reduce or alleviate certain disorders. Personal care products related to microbial communities on the skin is one focus of various embodiments. Such products include, in various embodiments, particular microorganisms that colonize the skin that include Staphylococcus epidermidis and other coagulase negative staphylococci, as well as species of Corynebacterium and Propionibacterium, all of which are preferably modified using the CRISPR-Cas or Cpf1 systems to delete certain virulence factors and to include beneficial traits, such as lipid production to facilitate moisturizing characteristics of particular formulations.

Sebaceous sites, such as the forehead, have the lowest diversity, and Propionibacterium species are the most dominant organisms at such sites. On the other hand, moist areas (e.g., armpits, navel, groin) constitute higher diversity of microbiota, with Staphylococcus and Corynebacterium species as the predominant members. Moreover, skin sites with greater bacterial diversity (e.g., forearm, hand, buttock) can harbor diversity as high as or higher than that of the gut microbiome. Acidic conditions resulting from sebum degradation discourages pathogens from invading and establishing in the skin. Personal hygiene is another environmental factor that has a direct effect on the skin's microbial flora. Soaps, makeup, and skincare products (e.g., moisturizers) alter skin conditions that in turn may influence the types of microbes residing on the skin. Among the host factors are age, sex, and anatomic sites. Skin microbiota differ among various age groups, with significantly different bacterial communities between the youngest and the oldest groups. A newborn acquires resident bacteria on the skin soon after birth, and their composition is affected by birth delivery methods. Hormonal changes during puberty stimulate the growth of lipophilic (or lipid-loving) bacteria due to sebum production. Physiological changes and anatomic differences also contribute to microbial community variance between genders.

Certain skin diseases develop when altered lipid composition and organization occurs. An example is acne, an inflammatory malady that affects 80% of adolescents in the U.S. The change of lipid composition during puberty encourages lipophilic organisms, such as Propionibacterium acnes, to proliferate. As these bacteria derive energy from metabolizing fatty acids in the sebum, a variety of enzymes are secreted that injure the tissue lining of sebaceous glands.

S. aureus is one of the most commonly cited skin pathogens, and it is responsible for several cutaneous infections such as impetigo, furuncles, subcutaneous abscesses, ulcers, and other more serious systemic infections when penetrating into the blood stream (e.g., toxic shock syndrome). Various embodiments of the present invention involve the modification of S. aureus to reduce its virulence factors and to otherwise enhance its beneficial characteristics, especially in terms of the amount of moisturizing compounds produced by such bacteria after being modified via a CRISPR-Cas system to include genes for desired emollients, such as lipids.

Atopic dermatitis is a chronic and intensely inflammatory skin disorder that has more than doubled in industrialized countries in the past three decades without a clear cause. Atopic dermatitis patients frequently acquire cutaneous infections with S. aureus as the main colonizing organism. Disease severity and bacterial diversity are related, with atopic dermatitis being most severe when community diversity is low, and as the modified microbiota as described herein increase in number, a level of diversity similar to those of healthy skin may be attained.

Staphylococcus species have been implicated in both impaired wound healing and leg ulcers. Thus, in certain other embodiments, modification of such bacteria via CRISPR-Cas systems to reduce its virulence factors, and the subsequent use of competitive inhibition to reduce the population of non-modified bacteria of the same species, provides a way to address the issues long experienced by such bacteria impairing wound healing and causing leg ulcers.

Neonatal skin reveals an abrupt wave of highly activated Treg cells accumulating in the tissue during the first weeks of life. Selective inhibition of Treg cell migration into skin, and during this period completely abrogates commensal-specific tolerance. One aspect of the present invention is directed to appreciating that there is a specific window of time that is required for establishing a healthy host-commensal relationship on the skin. Certain embodiments of the present invention are directed to providing beneficial bacteria, namely particular bacteria modified via CRISPR-Cas systems so as to generate desirable immune functionality of a newborn by exposing such newborn to particular species of bacteria and other microbes that trigger normal development of the newborn's immune system.

S. epidermidis is a prevalent commensal bacterial species on human skin. Skin bacterial antigens are recognized by the adaptive immune system across an intact skin barrier. Skin commensal bacteria influence cutaneous immunity without causing tissue inflammation. Because a host-commensal relationship is formed immediately after birth, one aspect of the present invention relates to the appreciation that the mechanisms required for establishing tolerance are preferentially active during this period of time, such that administration of the various different and beneficial microbes to an infant's skin in the first 24 hours of life may be critical in the infant from developing an entire host of immune related diseases in later life.

Treg cells generated in neonatal life have the potential to promote self-tolerance and tolerance to commensal antigens. The phenomenon of a wave of Treg cells into neonatal tissue is unique to skin. Skin-barrier function influences more than local immunity and skin colonization results in commensal-specific T cells that are found both locally and systemically, and thus, maintaining a healthy microbe-host immune dialog in skin is important for both systemic and tissue-specific immune homeostasis. Altering the composition of skin commensal microbiota in the neonatal period can limit the opportunity to establish tolerance to a wide array of microbial antigens, resulting in chronic tissue inflammation. There are a variety of chronic inflammatory diseases of the skin that form abnormal anticommensal immune responses. The composition of the cutaneous microbiome in neonatal life has formative effects on the adaptive immune response to commensals, and understanding and manipulating the mcirobome is one aspect of the present invention with the objective being to establish modifications to an individual's skin microbiome to achieve enduring health implications.

The skin microbiota is dependent on the body site and the colonization of bacteria is dependent on the physiology of the skin site. Specific bacteria are associated with moist, dry and sebaceous microenvironments, with bacterial diversity lowest in such sebaceous sites. Propionibacterium spp. a lipophilic bacteria, is the dominant organisms in such sebaceous areas.

Certain bacteriophages are suitable for incorporating into certain antiperspirant and deodorant compositions, and are effective and specific in fighting against bacteria causing odor without irritating the skin or damaging the germs in the flora of the skin which have a positive effect. According to the invention, cosmetic and/or pharmaceutical compositions suitable to deodorizing the body contain, in a cosmetic or dermatologically acceptable carrier, at least one deodorant or antiperspirant active substance and at least one representative from the group of bacteriophages which are effective against at least one of the following: Staphylococcus aureus and/or Staphylococcus hominis and/or Corynebacterium tuberculostearicum and/or Anaerococcus octavius and/or Staphylococcus lugdunensis and/or Finegoldia magna and/or Corynebacterium amycolatum and/or Corynebacterium afermentans and/or Staphylococcus epidermidis and/or Staphylococcus capitis and/or Staphylococcus haemolyticus and/or Propionibacterium avidum and/or Corynebacterium kroppenstedtii and/or Peptinophilus spec. Each of such bacteria can be modified using CRISPR-Cas systems to reduce the production of malodorous components and to provide microbes that out compete wild type bacteria of the same species.

One particular aspect of the present invention is directed to decreasing body odor by inhibiting Staphylococcus hominis that is involved in body odor formation. Thus certain embodiments are directed to a deodorant composition or antiperspirant composition for the reduction of the body odor, involving applying to a person's skin a bacterial formulation that includes bacteria that generate lactic acid in combination with physiologically acceptable salts, with sodium salt most preferred. Even more preferred embodiments involve the modification of Staphylococcus hominis to reduce if not eliminate virulence factors of the species, and employing such modified bacteria to competitively inhibit non-modified strains, thus providing a way for an individual to reduce body odor (e.g. by at least 20%, more preferably at least about 50% and most preferably 80%) by inoculation of certain portions of their body, namely their armpits, with the modified bacteria. The sweaty odor of humans is comprised of acids, thiols and steroids. Sulfur compounds in a person's mouth are similar to the thiols present in armpit malodors. Thus, reducing the expression of thiols in particular bacteria by CRIPSR-Cas and/or Cpf1 systems is implicated in various embodiments of the present invention.

Propionibacterium, and P. acnes in particular, are dominant organisms in normal skin. One aspect of the present invention is directed to the perhaps the anti-intuitive fact that maintenance of a robust population and colony of such bacteria on an individual's skin plays a protective role that preserves and maintains normal skin health. Various illness of individuals occurs when P. acnes is displaced by more aggressive organisms. Thus, one aspect of the present invention is directed to CRISPR-Cas modified bacteria that have particular advantages in competitive competition with wild type strains, such as being provided with certain genes that render their colonization of the skin slightly more preferred than wild type strains.

The loss of Propionibacterium presence on a person's skin is indicative of psoriatic disease and thus, one objective in various embodiments is to limit or reduce numbers of over-represented organisms typically found in disease states on the skin and to increase populations of commonly occurring resident microbes that are diminished in disease. Such a probiotic approach is effective in addressing long unsolved skin conditions.

Commensal microorganisms that comprise the human microbiota are not simply passengers in the host, but actually drive certain host functions. One aspect of the present invention is to introduce beneficial bacteria to the skin, where such bacteria may not typically have a real opportunity to survive and prosper. Thus, in several embodiments, two or more bacteria are employed with each providing aspects of an environment such that another bacteria can survive. For example, one bacteria may provide an acid producing ability that another bacteria needs to prosper. Both bacteria can then depend on each other for survival—and if either is absent, then the other is eliminated. So, for example, in certain embodiments, formulations and methods of administration of skin microbes are designed to that certain bacteria possess an antibiotic sensitivity that is only not expressed when the another bacteria is present—such that if both are not there, then they each will die. This type of synergism is preplanned and calculated to provide at least two different types of bacteria, in some embodiments at least three types of bacteria, and in other embodiments at least four bacteria species modified so that they are co-dependent upon each other for a critical factor in each other's survival, such that they all need to be present on the skin at the same time to co-survive. In such a manner, coordination of selection of bacterial species can be used to foster the desired diversity of bacteria that has been appreciated as being beneficial to the overall health of a skin microbiome.

In certain embodiments, CRISPR-Cas systems are employed to modify the adhesion characteristics of particular bacteria, namely adhesions, which are molecular parts of their capsules, fimbriae, and cell walls that attach to a host surface. In certain embodiments, modifications may be made to enhance the adherence of certain desired bacteria to particular tissues so as to competitively inhibit the attachment of other undesired bacteria to such tissues.

Pathogenic bacteria display various levels of host specificity or tropism. While many bacteria can infect a wide range of hosts, certain bacteria have strict host selectivity for humans as obligate human pathogens. Various aspects of the present invention are directed to the employment of host specific bacteria that are modified via the CRISPR-Cas and/or Cpf1 systems in a manner that does not pose a threat to various other species, thus reducing the threats that might otherwise be presented if large-scale modifications of bacteria are modified by CRISPR systems.

Certain bacteria are highly adapted to the human environment and display strict host selectivity for humans, including Haemophilus influenzae, Helicobacter pylori, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitidis, Mycobacterium leprae, Salmonella Typhi, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes, Vibrio cholerae and Treponema pallidum. One aspect of the present invention relates to the modification of human-specific pathogens to reduce virulence factors of such bacteria using one of a CRISPR-Cas or Cpf1 system. Other embodiments include the enhancement of selective bacteria with respect to their ability to grow and colonize the human skin by competitively inhibit other undesired species. By rendering such human-specific bacteria, many considered to be pathogenic, less harmful to humans, one aspect is directed to employing such modified bacteria to outcompete and thus competitively inhibit the colonization of non-modified bacteria on a person's skin.

N. gonorrhoeae and N. meningitidis are two human pathogens within the genus Neisseria. N. gonorrhoeae is the causative agent of gonorrhea (pelvic inflammation), a sexually transmitted disease. N. meningitidis causes invasive infections, such as septicemia and meningitis. Both pathogens have strict host tropism for humans. Like many other human-specific pathogens, the narrow host specificity of these pathogenic bacteria renders them suitable for modification to make them less pathogenic, and at least to reduce the population of wild type more virulent strains. In one embodiment, CRISPR-Cas systems are used to excise particular virulence factors of particular bacteria, such as Neisseria, preferably affecting one or more surface-exposed proteins associated with the human specificity of pathogenic Neisseria.

The present inventor contends that S. aureus colonization is a cause of various diseases, and thus its reduction or near elimination results in an amelioration of the clinical symptoms. Staphylococcus aureus is responsible for a variety of diseases ranging from minor skin infections to life-threatening systemic infections, including endocarditis and sepsis, and is a major cause of community- and hospital-acquired septicemia. Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a disease of skin microbiota dysbiosis with S. aureus, interventions that reduce S. aureus colonization on the skin of AD patients is one objective of the present invention. There is an existing problem with respect to antibiotic resistance of S. aureus microbiologists are now facing a challenge to design strategies decreasing S. aureus skin load. S. aureus causes the majority of bacterial skin infections, including some historically caused by streptococcal species. Bacterial skin infections can be classified as primary or secondary and as an initial episode or a recurrence. Primary infections manifest in normal, intact skin. Examples include impetigo, cellulitis, folliculitis, or furunculosis. Secondary infections manifest in conditions with an impaired skin barrier. Common examples include atopic dermatitis, bites, burns, and wounds. In atopic dermatitis, S. aureus colonization is common and secondary S. aureus infections are a major concern. Patients with atopic dermatitis are at risk for secondary infections due to impaired physical barrier function, colonization with pathogenic bacteria, and alterations to the skin microbiome. An additional risk for infection relates to deficiencies in the antimicrobial defenses of the skin.

In one embodiment, S. aureus is modified via CRISPR systems to render such bacteria antibiotic sensitivity and such sensitive culture is then purposefully employed to populate the skin of an individual, thus competively inhibiting the residence of other S. aureus on the person's skin. Removal of bacteria, including S. aureus, prior to such re-population step is preferably employed so as to facilitate the re-establishment of the modified S. aureus as a bacterial species, despite the appreciation that such species is not a typically desired bacteria on a person's skin.

Worsening atopic dermatitis and smaller bacterial diversity are strongly associated. Thus, one aspect of certain embodiments relates to increasing the diversity of bacteria on a person's skin via the application of formulations that include beneficial bacteria in amounts and with particular diversity of species so as to promote the health of a person's skin in a manner to reduce the likelihood of atopic dermatitis. The application of such formulations is preferably conducted without the use of emollients containing antioxidant and antibacterial components that may reduce microbiome diversity in atopic skin. As about one third of deaths in adults in the elderly are due to infectious disease, it is believed that the present invention provides an avenue to reduce the number of such deaths and to otherwise address the significant health issues related to skin ailments, including but not limited to atopic dermatitis. One theory is that as a person ages, their immune system changes and is less robust in addressing bacterial infections. By enhancing the microbiome of a person's skin as they age, it is believed that infections that would otherwise be encountered will be avoided, or at least the frequency and severity of the same will be decreased.

Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive, commensal bacterium known to asymptomatically colonize the human skin, nares, and gastrointestinal tract. Colonized individuals are at increased risk for developing S. aureus infections, which range from mild skin and soft tissue infections to more severe diseases, such as endocarditis, bacteremia, sepsis, bacteremia, pneumonia and osteomyelitis. Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most important bacterial pathogens in hospital- and community-acquired infections. Different virulence factors are required for S. aureus to infect different body sites. Various aspects of the present invention are directed to modifying bacteria using the CRISPR-Cas and Cpf1 systems to reduce various virulence factors, including those involved in S. aurens infections, and by doing so, protecting individuals from one or more of the diseases related to such bacterium.

Probiotics are believed to play a part in protecting skin against photoaging. Supplementation of a person's skin with particular bacteria, and preferably a diverse set of bacteria, even more preferably bacteria that have been modified by using a CRISPR-Cas or Cpf1 system to reduce various virulence factors of such bacteria, and/or to incorporate UV protectant chemicals and proteins generated by the modified bacteria, is employed to significantly enhance skin hydration, reduce epidermal thickening and transepidermal water loss, and to further protect the skin form harmful UV radiation. Supplementation of a person's skin with an effective amount of a bifidobacterium strain, preferably modified via CRISPR-Cas system to enhance UV protection, is one aspect of various embodiments.

Yet another aspect of the invention is directed to a method via which a bacterial containing lotion, gel or cream is administered topically to provide a person with a diverse number and type of bacteria, especially those modified via CRISPR systems as described herein, and in such a manner, reduce the likelihood of skin infections.

Certain aspects of the present invention relate to a composition including ammonia oxidizing bacteria to increase production of nitric oxide and/or nitric oxide precursors in close proximity to a person's skin. More specifically, applying a composition of an ammonia oxidizing bacteria to skin during or after bathing to metabolize urea and other components of perspiration into nitrite and ultimately into Nitric Oxide (NO) results in a natural source of NO. One aspect of the present invention causes topical nitric oxide release at or near the surface of the skin where it can diffuse into the skin and have local as well as systemic effects. This naturally produced nitric oxide can then participate in the normal metabolic pathways by which nitric oxide is utilized by the body. Adding urea or ammonium salts to the skin provides additional substrates that these bacteria utilize to form nitrite. As used herein, the phrase near the surface is defined as adjacent to or in close proximity to, but need not be in contact with the surface.

Prior to the advent of frequent bathing in hot water and soap substances, the skin on a human would develop a natural community of microorganisms adapted to the skin environment. An abundant component of human perspiration is urea. In soil, natural bacteria act upon urea and hydrolyze it to ammonia, which is then oxidized to nitrite, followed by rapid oxidation, by still other bacteria, to nitrate. In soil, all nitrogen containing compounds are ultimately degraded to nitrate. It is nitrate that most plants absorb as their nitrogen source. Under conditions of infrequent bathing, skin bacteria that can metabolize urea into nitrite-thrive and proliferate. The resulting nitrite on the skin when dampened by additional perspiration at the normal sweat pH of 4.5 would release Nitric Oxide (NO). Nitric Oxide is a small molecule that diffuses rapidly through the skin into the capillaries of the skin. Vasodilatation of these capillaries occur, as well as diffusion of NO into the blood where it can be transported to other regions of the body. Dilatation of the capillaries at the skin surface enhances blood flow to, and hence heat loss from the skin during periods of exercise.

In certain embodiments, an ammonia oxidizing bacteria may be used and preferably may have the following characteristics: ability to rapidly metabolize ammonia and urea to nitrite and other NO precursors; non pathogenic; non allergenic; non-producer of odoriferous compounds; non-producer of malodoros compounds; ability to survive and grow in human sweat; ability to survive and grow under conditions of high salt concentration; and ability to survive and grow under conditions of low water activity. Natural bacteria can be used as well as bacteria whose characteristics have been altered through genetic engineering techniques, preferably via CRISPR systems as set forth herein. While some skin bacteria species double every 20 minutes, ammonia-oxidizing bacteria, preferred in various embodiments of the present invention, are much slower growing, doubling only every 10 hours. Nitrosomonas eutropha, an ammonia-oxidizing bacteria is one preferred species to employ on a person's skin to enhance the health of the skin and to avoid chemical use typically deemed required to thwart body odor.

Compositions of the present invention may take the form of a gel, a cream, a lotion, an ointment, a solution, a solid “stick,” etc., that can be rubbed or sprayed onto the skin. Certain embodiments include water, live cultured ammonia-oxidizing bacteria, disodium phosphate, and magnesium chloride. Preferably, such compositions include selected bacteria that have been modified via CRISPR-Cas or Cpf1 systems to specifically target disease states and are used to reduce the effects thereof. For example, particular compositions include live Lactobacillus, employing various strains that can also be found in edible compositions, such as probiotic yogurts and nutritional supplements. In preferred embodiments, there is an absence of sodium lauryl sulfate, a potent detergent, which is preferably avoided as it can remove your healthy bacteria. Other embodiments employ Bifidobacterium longum and Lactobacillus plantarum, both of which are modified via the CRISPR systems as described herein. It is believed that such Lactobacillus species reduce symptoms of eczema, especially when modified to encourage its growth and maintenance on the skin, where normally it is not found in abundance.

In still other embodiments, CRISPR systems are used to modify the genera Propionibacterium, Corynebacterium and Staphylococcus, and in particular S. epidermidis, which are among the most common groups on a person's skin, with such modifications making such species more amenable to growth on the skin, thus providing for competitive inhibition of non-modified bacteria on the skin. As one of skill in the art will appreciate, a suitable topical composition comprising a population of the above bacteria can be, in various embodiments, a cream, lotion, emulsion, gel, ointment, liquid or spray. In one embodiment, the topical composition is formulated to provide at least about 10.sup.2 bacteria per cm.sup.2. In another aspect, a method of treatment is provided, wherein a composition as described herein is topically applied to the skin and in certain embodiments, topically applying includes topically applying to a mucosal surface (nasal, vaginal, rectal, oral surfaces) of a person. A suitable lotion may also include amounts of sugars that the various lactobacillus microorganisms may assimilate to survive and thrive. These sugars and life bacteria-supporting compounds are known to those in the art and as otherwise referenced in various incorporated writings. In still other embodiments, pulverized compositions of helminth collections and bacteria preferably obtained from Amish-soils, may be employed in various administrative modes, including but not limited to lotions, creams, and other topical applications.

Under the FD&C Act, a product's category is based primarily on intended use. For example, the term “cosmetics” is defined in section 201(i) of the FD&C Act in part as “articles intended to be rubbed, poured, sprinkled, or sprayed on, introduced into, or otherwise applied to the human body or any part thereof for cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness or altering appearance”. Thus, various embodiments of the present invention are directed to cosmetic compositions that include microorganisms or fractions thereof that enhance the health of a person's skin. Still other embodiments are directed to a shampoo and a conditioner having a sufficient amount of bacteria therein to beneficially affect the scalp of the user. Yet other embodiments are directed towards personal care products, including those that may help to prevent disorders or restore health of the skin, such as, but not limited to, particular cuticle formulations that are beneficial to the health of a person's nail beds on their hands and feet.

One aspect of the present invention is to determine a person's particular microbiome composition, compare it generally to the characteristics of the general population in the general area where such individual resides, and then address any differences in such microbe populations differences on the particular person by providing particular microbe components, whether that be actual microbes themselves or the provision of nutrients for particular microbes to out-compete other microbes, such that a population of microbes more like those of the general population is achieved.

One basis from which several embodiments of the present invention relate include an appreciation that the general population of microbes in a human population in a particular area, for example in a city, will have certain general characteristics. Individuals that possess microbe populations on their skin that vary significantly from such general population of microbes are often suffering from maladies that are directly related to the imbalance of microbe populations on their skin. As such, one aspect of the present invention is to address such imbalance by providing methods and compositions that bring the particular microbe population of a particular individual back into the relative balance of microbe population as exists in the particular city within which such individual lives.

There are noted differences of microbe populations on an individual's skin dependent on race, gender, age and living environment, particularly the location of the person, e.g. whether they are in the tropics, northern climes, etc. These factors are taken into account when addressing the alteration of a particular person's microbiome so that modifications made to the individual's microbiome are adjusted to achieve roughly the same microbe population as would be predicted from more general criteria of a hypothetical person having similar race, gender and age characteristics in a particular locale. In a way, such conformance with respect to the microbiome in a community is a beneficial trait for such community, as well as for the individuals residing therein. There has not been, prior to the present invention, a method or system that addresses the imbalances that exist periodically in a community's overall microbiome so that issues arising from individuals who present personal microbiomes that present significantly different microbe populations on their skin can be addressed by, for example, reducing the type and number of bacteria on such person's skin, followed by purposeful exposure of such person's skin to a predetermined population of bacteria as described herein. By such exposing of such person to microbes and microbe enhanced compositions, one is able to achieve a more uniform overall microbiome of an entire community and enjoy the health benefits derived therefrom.

Various factors affect the microbial flora of the skin and they can be generally categorized into host and environmental factors. Sebaceous sites such as the forehead have the lowest diversity, and Propionibacterium species are the dominant organisms. On the other hand, moist areas (e.g., armpits, navel, groin) constitute higher diversity of microbiota, with Staphylococcus and Corynebacterium species as the predominant members. Skin sites with greater bacterial diversity (e.g., forearm, hand, buttock) can harbor diversity as high as or higher than that of the gut microbiome. The acidic condition resulting from sebum degradation discourages pathogens from invading and establishing in the skin. Personal hygiene is another environmental factor that has a direct effect on the skin's microbial flora. Soaps, makeup, and skincare products (e.g., moisturizers) alter skin conditions that in turn may influence the types of microbes residing on the skin. Host factors, such as age, sex, and anatomic sites demonstrate that skin microbiota differ among various age groups. For example, acne, an inflammatory malady that affects 80% of adolescents, relates to a change of lipid composition during puberty that encourages the proliferation of lipophilic organisms, such as Propionibacterium acnes. As these bacteria derive energy from metabolizing fatty acids in the sebum, a variety of enzymes are secreted that injure the tissue lining of sebaceous glands. In conjunction with activated immune responses, this results in a skin condition termed acne vulgaris. In contrast, younger children have a higher abundance of Staphylococcus (S.) aureus, which are later replaced by lipophilic and other bacteria. Conversely, certain skin disorders, such as atopic dermatitis (or eczema), are more prevalent among children but often resolve by adolescence and adulthood. S. aureus is one of many skin pathogens responsible for several cutaneous infections such as impetigo, furuncles, subcutaneous abscesses, ulcers, and toxic shock syndrome. Burn victims whose epidermis have been destroyed are exposed to various assaults, with Gram positive bacteria (e.g., S. aureus) being main colonizers after a burn. A shift then occurs and Gram negative opportunistic organisms predominate, some with virulent properties that can cause life threatening infections. Thus, in certain embodiments of the present invention, a particular formulation is provided that includes a diverse range of bacteria that have been preferably modified via the CRISPR systems as described herein so as to establish a particular population of diverse bacteria that enhance the healing environment of a burn victim's skin.

Atopic dermatitis, an inflammatory skin disorder that has more than doubled in industrialized countries in the past three decades, is treated by administration of various formulations of the present invention. AD patients frequently acquire cutaneous infections with S. aureus as the main colonizing organism, with disease severity directly related to low diversity of bacteria. Thus, to treat the same, promotion of diversity of bacterial species is achieved by administering CRISPR-cas modified bacteria, including Staphylococcus species that have had their virulence factors reduced so as to competitively inhibit the population of other non-modiifed bacteria of the same species, often associated with Chronic non-healing wounds. Provision of a diverse population of other beneficial skin microbes with such bacteria is believed to remedy such long term diseases. As dysbiosis in skin bacterial habitat is an indicator of unhealthy skin conditions, one aspect of the present invention is directed to restoring homeostasis to treat certain skin diseases, including the administration of CRISPR-Cas modified bacteria that reduce the effectiveness of particular virulence factors for the targeted bacteria and the encouragement of the population of such enhanced and modified bacteria so as to maintain a healthy and diverse population of the skin.

The many layers and structures of the skin serve as elaborate hosts to microbes, including a diversity of commensal and pathogenic bacteria that contribute to both human health and disease. In several embodiments, a formulation includes a diverse population of bacterial species based on a collection of various racial skin types and for particular ethnic populations, such as an enhanced proportion of Enhydrobacter for Chinese ancestry. Other formulations include bacterial formulations with Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacterioidetes, in 40/30/20/10 ratios. Firmicutes (mainly Streptococcus and Staphylococcus), Enhydrobacter, Gordonia, and Actinobacteria (mainly Corynebacterium and Propionibacterium) are preferably employed, again modified via CRISPR-Cas and Cpf1 systems to reduce the virulence factors normally encountered in such bacteria. In various embodiments, CRISPR-Cas systems are employed to modify the following species belonging to the genera Corynebacterium, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, and Anaerococcus.

During the birthing process and subsequent exposure to the post-natal environment, the skin is colonized by a wide array of microbes. Knowledge of the skin microbiota has historically been limited to culture-dependent assays, although it is estimated that less than 1% of bacterial species can be cultivated. Recent findings reveal a low level of interpersonal consensus and an extremely dynamic microbiota that fluctuates greatly in a short span of time. So changing a person's bacterial skin composition is not something that should be viewed as somehow detrimentally affecting their health as such populations are seen to vary greatly in any event under natural conditions. Thus, one aspect of the present invention relates to the modification of a person's microbiota on their skin in a manner believed to enhance the overall health of the skin, thus preventing diseases that may otherwise infect such person's skin. The diversity of the skin formulations as set forth herein include compositions that include at least the following (and particularly such species modified via CRISPR systems to reduce their respective virulence factors and to enhance their abilities to out compete other bacteria on a person's skin): Proteobacteria, of the Janthinobacterium, Serratia, Halomonas, Stenotrophomonas, Delftia, and Comamonas genera; Actinobacteria, including species of the genera Corynebacterium, Kocuria, Propionibacterium, Microbacterium, and Micrococcus; Firmicutes, such as Staphylococcus or Clostridium species; and Bacteroidetes, including Sphingobacterium or Chryseobacterium species. In other embodiments, a common core skin microbiome is derived from healthy human subjects, and then such bacteria are enhanced via CRISPR-Cas systems to remove virulence factors, prior to administering the modified bacteria to a person's skin for the purpose of improving the skin microbiome thereof.

The general Pseudomonas and Janthinobacterium (both pseudomonads; gram-negative bacilli, aerobic, non-spore forming, motile by means of one or more flagella) are not typically thought of as skin microbes based on culture assays. Pseudomonads (and other Gram-negative bacilli) have historically been labeled as secondary invaders of wounds, most commonly referring to the colonization of burns by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Pseudomonads are found in soil, water, and decomposing organic materials where there is a moist environment. Modification of such bacteria so that it is less virulent and more readily reduced in number due to CRISPR-Cas enhanced antibiotic sensitivities, forms one embodiment of the present invention, and one that can be employed to treat wound infections to competitively inhibit non-modfied strains from infecting a wound.

Because skin cells turn over every 4 weeks, differentiating from stem cells deep within the epidermis and hair follicles, they eventually slough off from the upper layer as cornified (enucleated, dead) cells. The skin microbiome is vastly different from the gut microbiome, which consists primarily of members of Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes divisions. The skin is also different from the gut in that there is a low level of interpersonal variation of skin microbiomes, which is not the case in gut studies. Regardless, there is a low level of deep evolutionary lineage diversity, with only six of the more than 70 described bacterial divisions associated with the skin, and approximately the same number for the gut, which compares to a vast array of bacteria in soil.

Many physiological functions are performed by skin microbiota. Proteobacteria, which dominates the skin microbiota, may be modified via CRISPR-Cas and Cpf1 to achieve desired populations that lack virulence characteristics of wild type strains.

Still other embodiments relate to the adjustment of the microbiome via air conditioning units, HVAC, etc units that propagate beneficial populations into a living environment of individuals. Certain figures from the parent specification provide details as to how such microbes can be disseminated into a living space for humans, which affects both respiratory and skin microbiomes of individuals so exposed.

FDA acceptable limits for total (not pathogenic) microorganisms in cosmetics are very low and are anticipated to be revised to permit the employment of various embodiments of the present invention after a recognition that such products are safe and beneficial and address various disease states. In preferred embodiments, bacteria that produce various products are preferred, such as lactic acid, which serves as a moisturizing factor, hyaluronic acid which improves skin hydration and elasticity, and sphingomyelinase which generates ceramide for skin barrier function. Whether such products are considered a drug or a cosmetic under the FD&C Act, is something the present inventors believe is besides the point: the skin microbiome health is dependent upon the administration of one or more of the compositions as set forth herein and these will increase the benefits sought by numerous individuals.

Yet other embodiments include a topical lotion that comprises a mixture of Lactobacillus johnsonii, and Bifidobacterium lognum bacteria. Such use of probiotic bacteriotherapy is employed in treating skin diseases including eczema, atopic dermatitis, acne, and allergic inflammation or in skin hypersensitivity, UV-induced skin damage, wound protection, and as a cosmetic product. A topically applied composition that comprises a population of pre-selected bacteria comprising various non-pathogenic bacteria and CRISPR-Cas modified pathogenic bacteria is employed to establish a resident population on a person's skin in order to enhance the overall health of the person's skin.

In one such embodiment, a formulation comprises a mixture of various amounts of the following: Bifidobacterium lognum, B. infantis BCRC 14602; Prevotella; Ruminococcus, Bifidobacterium infantis, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bacteroides fragilis, B. longum bv. Infantis isolate UCD272; B. infantis BCRC; B. longum bv. lnfantis, AY151398; and Lactobacillus ruminus. Other embodiments include compositions directed to the treatment of sensitive skin, using, as active agent, a combination of a Lactobacillus paracasei or casei microorganism and a Bifidobacterium longum or Bifidobacterium lactis microorganism.

Certain microorganisms are known to have a beneficial action on the skin membrane by maintaining a slightly acidic environment. Thus, in certain embodiments, such an acidic environment is first established on the skin and then one maintains beneficial endogenous flora on the skin such that the microflora participates in maintaining a desired physio-chemical balance of the skin while not favoring the development of pathogenic microorganisms on the skin surface. The benefits of the skin condition are selected from the group consisting of improving skin appearance, improving skin feel, increasing the thickness of one or more layers of the skin, increasing the elasticity of the skin, increasing the resiliency of the skin, increasing the firmness of the skin, reducing an oily appearance of the skin, reducing a shiny appearance of the skin, reducing a dull appearance of the skin, increasing a hydration status of the skin, increasing a moisturization status of the skin, reducing an appearance of fine lines, reducing an appearance of wrinkles, improving skin texture, improving skin smoothness, improving skin exfoliation, improving skin desquamation, plumping the skin, improving skin barrier properties, improving skin tone, reducing an appearance of redness, reducing an appearance of skin blotches, improving the brightness of the skin, improving the radiancy of the skin, improving the translucency of the skin.

A subject of the invention is also the topical use of an effective amount of at least one probiotic microorganism according to the invention, especially of the Lactobacillus and/or Bifidobacterium sp. Genus, and in particular of the Lactobacillus paracasei ST11 strain, to reduce the likelihood of seborrhoeic dermatosis associated with oily skin or skin with an oily tendency. Microorganisms suitable for this aspect of the invention include an ascomycetes, such as Saccharomyces, Yarrowia, Kluyveromyces, Torulaspora, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Debaromyces, Candida, Pichia, Aspergillus and Penicillium, bacteria of the genus Bifidobacterium, Bacteroides, Fusobacterium, Melissococcus, Propionibacterium, Enterococcus, Lactococcus, Staphylococcus, Peptostrepococcus, Bacillus, Pediococcus, Micrococcus, Leuconostoc, Weissella, Aerococcus, Oenococcus and Lactobacillus, and mixtures thereof.

As ascomycetes is particularly suitable for particular embodiments of the present invention, one may desire the use of Yarrowia lipolitica and Kluyveromyces lactis, as well as Saccharomyces cereviseae, Torulaspora, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Candida and Pichia, all of the same preferably modified via CRISPR-Cas or Cpf1 systems to reduce virulence factors associated with the same. Specific examples of probiotic microorganisms also suitable for the invention include: Bifidobacterium adolescentis, Bifidobacterium animalis, Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bifidobacterium breve, Bifidobacterium lactis, Bifidobacterium longum, Bifidobacterium infantis, Bifidobacterium pseudocatenulatum, Lactobacillus acidophilus (NCFB 1748); Lactobacillus amylovorus, Lactobacillus casei (Shirota), Lactobacillus rhamnosus (strain GG), Lactobacillus brevis, Lactobacillus crispatus, Lactobacillus delbrueckii (subsp bulgaricus, lactis), Lactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus helveticus, Lactobacillus gallinarum, Lactobacillus gasseri, Lactobacillus johnsonii (CNCM 1-1225), Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus reuteri, Lactobacillus salivarius, Lactobacillus alimentarius, Lactobacillus curvatus, Lactobacillus casei subsp. casei, Lactobacillus sake, Lactococcus lactis, Enterococcus (faecalis, faecium), Lactococcus lactis (subsp lactis or cremoris), Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp dextranicum, Pediococcus acidilactici, Sporolactobacillus inulinus, Streptococcus salvarius subsp. thermophilus, Streptococcus thermophilus, Staphylococccus carnosus, Staphylococcus xylosus, Saccharomyces (cerevisiae or else boulardii), Bacillus (cereus var toyo or subtilis), Bacillus coagulans, Bacillus licheniformis, Escherichia coli strain nissle, Propionibacterium freudenreichii, and mixtures thereof. In other embodiments, probiotic microorganisms for use in the invention are derived from the group of lactic acid bacteria, such as, in particular, Lactobacillus and/or Bifidobacterium. In particular, various embodiments use lactic acid bacteria such as Lactobacillus johnsonii, Lactobacillus reuteri, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, Lactobacillus paracasei, Lactobacillus casei or Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bifidobacterium breve, Bifidobacterium longum, Bifidobacterium animalis, Bifidobacterium lactis, Bifidobacterium infantis, Bifidobacterium adolescentis, Bifidobacterium pseudocatenulatum, and mixtures thereof. Most preferably for particular embodiments, CRISPR modified bacteria of the following are employed: Lactobacillus johnsonii, Lactobacillus paracasei, Bifidobacterium ado/escentis and Bifidobacterium longum, respectively deposited according to the Treaty of Budapest with the Institut Pasteur (28 rue du Docteur Roux, F-75024 Paris cedex 15) on 30 Jun. 1992, 12 Jan. 1999, 15 Apr. 1999 and 15 Apr. 1999 under the following designations: CNCM 1-1225, CNCM 1-2116, CNCM 1-2168 and CNCM 1-2170, and the Bifidobacterium lactis (Bb 12) (ATCC27536) or Bifidobacterium longum (BB536) genus. The Bifidobacterium lactis (ATCC27536) strain can be obtained from Hansen (Chr. Hansen A/S, 10-12 Boege Alle, P.O. Box 407, DK-2970 Hoersholm, Denmark); Lactobacillus paracasei ST11 strain deposited according to the Treaty of Budapest with the Institut Pasteur (28 rue du Docteur Roux, F-75024 Paris cedex 15) on 12 Jan. 1999 under the designation CNCM 1-2116, and/or a fraction thereof and/or a metabolite thereof.

According to one variant embodiment, the invention relates to the use, in addition to a first probiotic microorganism, as defined above, especially of the Lactobacillus and/or Bifidobacterium sp. genus, of at least an effective amount of at least a second microorganism, distinct from said first microorganism. Such a second microorganism may be an ascomycetes, such as Saccharomyces, Yarrowia, Kluyveromyces, Torulaspora, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Debaromyces, Candida, Pichia, Aspergillus and Penicillium, bacteria of the Bacteroides, Fusobacterium, Melissococcus, Propionibacterium, Enterococcus, Lactococcus, Staphylococcus, Peptostrepococcus, Bacillus, Pediococcus, Micrococcus, Leuconostoc, Weissella, Aerococcus, Oenococcus, Lactobacillus or Bifidobacterium genus, and mixtures thereof.

In other embodiments, CRISPR-Cas and or Cpf1 systems are used to modify at least one of Enterobacter aerogenes, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Klebsiella pneumoniae, which are three gram negative bacteria commonly found on the skin, and which utilize fatty acids in a manner that affects bacterial phenotype. The modifications to such bacteria include those effective in enhancing the beneficial traits of such bacteria for a person's skin and the reduction of respective virulence factors of the bacteria. In such a manner, one aspect of the present invention is to maintain a microbiome in a healthy, balanced state and/or returning a microbiome to a balanced state by providing certain desirable microorganisms with sufficient nutrients to thrive, and thereby outcompete and/or kill the undesirable bacteria. It has been found that Corynebacterium jeikeium (“C. jeikeium”), Staphylococcus epidermidis (“S. epidermidis”), and Propionibacterium acnes (“P. acnes”), present on both the face and forearms of humans, can be used to address dry skin conditions and diseases on such tissues. Modifications of virulence factors of pathogenic bacteria associated with such conditions, as well as combining such modified bacteria with other commensal microorganisms, is one aspect fo the present invention. Such bacteria include: Alphaproteobacteria, Betaproteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, Propionibacteria, Corynebacteria, Actinobacteria, Clostridiales, Lactobacillales, Staphylococcus, Bacillus, Micrococcus, Streptococcus, Bacteroidales, Flavobacteriales, Enterococcus, and Pseudomonas.

One particular aspect of the present invention is directed to a method and system for reducing the likelihood that one will acquire multiple sclerosis (MS). To avoid such disease, the avoidance of a skin contacting soluble toxin is achieved by establishing a population of beneficial bacteria, as described herein, on a person's skin, such that Clostridium perfringens, a gram positive, spore forming anaerobe, which produces the toxin required for the initiation of MS, is avoided. Certain aspects of the present invention are directed to a system and method to protect a person from getting MS and/or to treat a person that has multiple sclerosis by interfering with epsilon toxin (ETX) of Clostridium perfringens type B or type D by interfering with the ETX interacting receptor, and in particular, by employing CRISPR-Cas and/or Cpf1 systems to modify bacteria in a manner to reduce the ability of Clostridium perfringens to produce effective toxins that can trigger MS. Use of CRISPR-Cas systems to provide inhibitors of such toxin, such as the inclusion of genes that express antibodies thereto, is one embodiment of the present invention. Competitive inhibition of Clostridium perfringens by using an effective amount of a probiotic supplement which contains a bacterial strain that outcompetes such non-modified species, is one way to provide a treatment regimen, and one of skill in the art will appreciate the many desirable strains by which to accomplish this objective, including but not limited to the following: Lactobacillus acidophilus, L. bulgaricus, L. casie, L. fermentum, L. Plantarum, Rhodoseudomonas palustris, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Steptococcus thermophiles. To render such competitive inhibition effective, it is suggested that in preferred embodiments, a course of antibiotics is taken first to reduce the numbers of C. perfringens, preferably employing one or more of penicillin, ampicillin, amoxicillin, metronidazole, erythromycin, and tylosin, prior to inoculation (for some skin application, rubbing of a lotion or gel on one's skin) of the person's microbiome with one or more of the probiotic bacteria listed herein, and in particular, those bacteria modified by the CRISPR-Cas and/or Cpf1 systems described herein.

Various embodiments of the present invention are directed to a method for reducing the likelihood of the onset of a disease by administering to a subject a therapeutically effective amount of a composition comprising a probiotic microorganism, rather than attempting to alter the eurcaryotic genome of the individual. It is believed that by merely modifying a person's microbiome, whether it be their gut, oral or skin microbiome, it is possible to treat, if not protect such individuals from a vast array of previously devastating diseases of man. For example, Helicobacter species have been associated with enhanced carcinogenesis including liver cancer, colon cancer, and mammary carcinoma. Probiotic formulations containing lactic acid bacteria have been shown to reduce the incidence of chemically mediated hepatocellular carcinoma and colon cancer. Bacteria that have been modified using a CRISPR-Cas system to purposefully excise or interfere with virulence factors of particular pathogenic bacteria, and the employment of such modified bacteria to adjust the population of a person's microbiome, is an effective way to treat a vast number of historically difficult diseases.

Certain aspects of the present invention are directed to modifying a person's intestinal, oral or skin microbiota using specific combinations of pre-biotics, pro-biotics and/or anti-biotics to establish a defined microbiota that can treat and/or reduce the likelihood that individuals will experience various diseases. For example, various embodiments of the present invention are directed to averting or reducing the likelihood of cancer by employing bacteria modified to address p53 deficiency. In such a manner, rather than treating human cells and the consequent issues surrounding genetic manipulation of human cells for treatments of cancer, the present invention provides a method and system that employs the microbiome of a person, whether than be oral, gut or skin, or a combination thereof, to treat cancer by increasing the level of p53 to take advantage of the role of such protein in the progression of various cancers. Provision of modified bacteria as described herein to pre-treat a person prior to a cancer treatment, such as radiation, can also be used to lessen the otherwise detrimental effects of the radiation treatment. Moreover, after such treatments, provision of such modified bacteria to restore the person's microbiomes, whether they be oral, skin or intestinal, is one aspect of the present invention. Use of modified skin bacteria to treat melanoma is one aspect of the present invention, thus providing a way to treat skin cancer by providing essential compounds to reduce the spread and health of cancer cells while at the same time, enhancing the growth and propagation of beneficial bacteria, especially those modified as described herein via a CRISPR system.

The balance between health and disease is imperiled by infections. When immunity is lowered, the human body is less able to eradicate cancer cells, which would otherwise be kept in check. In certain embodiments, a mushroom component is also employed to achieve desired health effects. For example, in various embodiments, the mushroom mycelium is used to protect against viruses that cause disease in humans, such as those mushrooms derived or obtained from Antrodia, Fomes, Fomitopsis, Ganoderma, Inonotus, Schizophyllum, Phellinus, Piptoporus, Trametes and other taxa in the Polyporaceae. Ethyl alcohol/water extraction techniques are employed on living mycelium to obtain antiviral compounds and that are effective to reduce viruses that cause inflammation and immune deactivation which are contributory to oncogenesis. Such extracts reduce the pathogenicity of viruses and by doing so, reduce cancer risk and also significantly enhance the benefits of other anticancer drugs to increase the quality of life of cancer patients. Used in combination with the various other aspects of the present invention, including the beneficial modified bacterial species as described herein, a person's overall health is improved by reducing the chances of infection, inflammation and cancer, by improving and adjusting the micorobiome of individuals and by having certain mushroom derived compounds administered, (some of which can be inserted into the genome of bacteria via the CRISPR-Cas system) such that beneficial compounds are administered to individuals to prevent and treat various diseases, such as but not limited to, cancer.

In particular embodiments, a method of the present invention involves a method of improving the health of a person's skin microbiome by identifying a skin region to be treated in terms of age, ethnicity, region of the body and age of the person and then applying a skin commensal prebiotic agent adapted to address the skin region; wherein the prebiotic comprises at least one microbe that has been modified by a CRISPR-Cas or Cpf1 system to add or delete a gene that enhances the health of a person's skin.

Other embodiments include a method of improving the health of a person's skin microbiome, comprising: providing a first type of bacteria to a person's skin that produces an agent that another second bacterial species requires for growth; after applying said first bacteria to the skin of a person, then applying the second bacteria to the person's skin, wherein both the first and the second bacteria comprise at least one microbe that has been modified by a CRISPR-Cas or Cpf1 system to add or delete a gene that enhances the health of a person's skin. In still others, the virulence factor of the first bacteria is modified via CRISPR-Cas to impede the interaction of bacterial adhesions and keratinocyte receptors. One can modify the expression of at least one gene by employing a CRISPR-Cas system to decrease the pathogenesis of a skin infection. Moreover, one can employ a second bacteria whose growth on a person's skin is enhanced by at least 2-fold when in the presence of the first bacteria, wherein the second bacteria is modified via CRISPR-Cas to have an essential growth required component deleted from its genome, and wherein the first bacteria has been modified via CRIPSR-Cas to add the same essential growth component that the second bacteria requires for growth.

Existing antibiotic therapies non-specifically kill the majority of skin-residing bacteria, disrupting the homeostasis of skin resident microflora. For example, benzoyl peroxide (BPO) is one of the most frequently used topical medications. BPO strongly suppresses the growth of S. epidermidis. S. epidermidis contributes to the skin resident microflora-based defense of the skin epithelium. The imbalance of microflora is believed by the present inventor to contribute to the pathogenesis of skin inflammatory diseases, such as atopic dermatitis, rosacea and acne vulgaris etc. Thus, in various embodiments, such antibiotic therapies are not employed but instead, beneficial bacteria are administered to a person's skin in a manner that beneficial results are achieved (e.g. reduction in malodors, generation of desired odors by bacterial production of scents, etc.) CRISPR-Cas systems are preferably employed to modify species of bacteria already found on an individual's skin such that the disturbance of the “normal” population of a particular person is not disturbed in a fashion that could lead to disease or discomfort.

Various embodiments include providing two or more bacteria species that are normally found on a person's skin, and modifying the same to remove virulence factors via CRISPR; including in such bacteria beneficial genes for the production of emollients, lipids, scents, etc. and using competitive inhibition to foster the growth of bacteria purposefully exposed to the skin surface so that pathogenic bacteria are not permitted to establish and grow. In certain embodiment, CRISPR is employed to insert a gene for the production of tomatidine in a bacteria such that, especially in the gut microbiome, but preferably also in the oral and skin microbiome, tomatidine is expressed. Tomatidine has the effect of increasing and enhancing muscle performance and in maintaining the weight, especially muscle mass, of an individual.

Staphylococcus aureus is the most pathogenic species of the Staphylococcus genus, responsible for food poisoning, suppurative localized infections and physical septicemia (graft, cardiac prostheses). Ogston (1881) coined the genus Staphylococcus to describe grapelike clusters of bacteria (staphylogrape, Gr.) recovered in pus from surgical abscesses. The species proves to be an opportunistic pathogen in certain locations or under certain circumstances and is found in the commensal flora (in 15% to 30% of healthy individuals in the nasal fossae). S. aureus has pathogenic capacities, in particular an invasive capacity, a capacity to multiply and to spread in the organism, and also a toxic capacity. S. aureus has a great capacity for developing antibiotic-resistant mutants. In one embodiment, modified Staphylococcus epidermidis is used to produce enhanced amounts of anti-microbial peptides that inhibit S. aureus biofilm formation, with preferred embodiments employing CRISPR-Cas systems to achieve such modifications.

In various embodiments, due to the inclusion of bacteria—hostile formulations in over-the-counter lotions and related products, the use of conventional lotions is not suggested for employment in conjunction with the administration of many embodiments of the present invention. Lotions presently available are believed to be counterproductive to the fostering the beneficial growth of beneficial bacteria on a person's skin. E.g. salicylic acid is bacteriostatic that limits the growth of bacteria by interfering with bacterial protein production by down regulating fitness and virulence factor production of bacteria. As it is known that gram positive and gram negative bacteria prefer slightly basic conditions pH 7.5 and warm temperatures 37 degrees Celsius (98.6 degrees Fahrenheit), the establishment and maintenance of slightly acidic conditions on one's skin is a preferred objective and is achieved by the fostering of certain bacteria that produce lactic acid on a person's skin.

All gram negative bacteria are disease producing. As such, one aspect of the present invention is directed to reducing the number of gram negative bacteria on a person's skin by adjusting the overall local pH of the skin tissue region by providing bacterial species that are selected to synergistically grow together and establish a desired pH level that discourages the growth of gram negative bacteria on the skin. Caution is called for, however, as the pH should not get too low, as fungi, yeast, and molds prefer acid conditions (pH 5.5-6) at room temperature to multiply. In this regard, the pH is preferably maintained, either by bacterial species producing lactic acid at amounts sufficient to achieve such levels, or by other pH adjustment methods, in order to hinder the growth and progression of pyogenic cocci, spherical bacteria that cause various suppurative (pus-producing) infections. Included are the Gram-positive cocci Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes and Streptococcus pneumoniae, and the Gram-negative cocci, Neisseria gonorrhoeae and N. meningitidis. In terms of their phylogeny, physiology and genetics, these genera of bacteria are unrelated to one another. They share a common ecology, however, as parasites of humans. The Gram-positive cocci are the leading pathogens of humans. It is estimated that they produce at least a third of all the bacterial infections of humans, including strep throat, pneumonia, otitis media, meningitis, food poisoning, various skin diseases and severe types of septic shock. The Gram-negative cocci, notably the neisseriae, cause gonorrhea and meningococcal meningitis. Again, the reduction of virulence factors of such bacteria via CRISPR-Cas or Cpf1 systems reduces the incidence of infections caused by such bacteria and leads to methods and systems for establishing and maintaining a healthy skin microbiome, free of disease.

In yet other embodiments, bacteria are modified to express certain compounds that deter mosquitoes from alighting on an individual's skin. In certain embodiments bacteria are modified to produce amounts of DEET, with such bacteria being contacted to an individual's skin. In still other embodiments other known insect repellents such as eucalyptol, linalool, and thujone, are expressed by such bacteria to deter insects. In still other embodiments, bacteria are modified to express a protein member of the ionotropic receptor family, IR40a, which is a DEET receptor. In addition, other repellent proteins structurally related to DEET may be employed to repel insects, such as mosquitoes and flies.

One aspect of various embodiments is directed to the expression of particular phytochemicals by CRISPR-Cas modified bacteria to ameliorate a human disease. Phytochemicals exert their antibacterial activity through different mechanisms of action, such as damage to the bacterial membrane and suppression of virulence factors, including inhibition of the activity of enzymes and toxins, and bacterial biofilm formation. These antibacterial effects of phytochemicals may be due to the presence of one or more of alkaloids, sulfur-containing phytochemicals, terpenoids, and polyphenols and also may involve a synergistic effect when used in combination with conventional antibiotics, thus modifying antibiotic resistance.

Still other aspects of the present invention are directed specifically to the skin of an individual's scalp, and more particularly with the treatment of dandruff. Dandruff is an unpleasant scalp disorder common to human populations. Dandruff is a common scalp disorder that has occurred for centuries and has a prevalence of nearly 50% in the worldwide population. The formation of dandruff has been studied for decades, but no coincident view has been widely accepted. The scalp is covered with pilosebaceous units and sweat glands. Human sebum is a complex mixture of triglycerides, squalene, cholesterol esters, wax esters and cholesterols that are secreted from the scalp. The secretion of sebum is controlled by sebaceous gland activity and the sebum secretion rate increases throughout a person's teenage years, reaches the highest in the 15- to 35-year-olds and appears to declines in older adults. Throughout the active period of sebum secretion, the secretion rate is higher in males than in females.

Sebum quantity and water content are negatively correlated with the formation of dandruff. Moreover, a significant relationship exists between two reciprocally inhibited bacteria, Propionibacterium and Staphylococcus, on the scalp of individuals. Thus, one aspect of the present invention relates to the adjustment of the balance of certain bacteria on an individual's scalp, and specifically, the enhancement of Propionibacterium and suppression of Staphylococcus, to leads to a reduction in dandruff. The host physiological conditions affect the microbial flora living on the scalp by affecting the scalp microenvironment. Sebum is an important food source for the growth of scalp bacteria and as saturated fatty acids in sebum are consumed, unsaturated fatty acids are left on the skin. Staphylococcus populations on a person's scalp indicate a significant positive correlation with dandruff, while Propionibacterium and Labrys show a significant negative correlation with dandruff. Dandruff is therefore associated with the balance of these two genera. Propionibacterium is affected by various conditions, including sebum and water content and tends to exist on the side scalp region on the scalps of men. Staphylococcus is present at a higher ratio on the top region of the scalp and is negatively associated with the water content. Propionibacterium can secrete bacteriocins to suppress the growth of Staphylococcus, whereas Staphylococcus can mediate the fermentation of glycerol and inhibit the overgrowth of Propionibacterium. Compared with a normal scalp, the dandruff region had decreased Propionibacterium and increased Staphylococcus. Thus, the balance between Propionibacterium and Staphylococcus is important to the severity of dandruff. Scalp sebum acts as a food source for Propionibacterium, and a high water content provides a suitable environment for Propionibacterium growth. Adjusting the equilibrium of the bacteria, particularly by increasing the Propionibacterium and decreasing the Staphylococcus on the scalp, lessens the severity of dandruff. Regulating the physiological conditions is therefore important to inhibit the development of dandruff.

Other aspects are directed to adjusting the type and amount of bacteria on a person's body, and in particular in the underarm region, so that malodor issues can be addressed. In one embodiment, a deodorant composition includes a mixture of bacteria selected to reduce axillary odor, and specifically involve the promotion of the growth of Staphylococcus epidermidis bacteria, and the inhibition of the growth of Corynebacterium striatum bacteria.

Further embodiments of the invention are directed to the employment of fungi agents in treating skin conditions. One of the least studied biochemical-chemical systems in nature is the relationship existing between microorganisms and their plant hosts. Two endophytic fungi, Muscodor albus from Cinnamomum zeylanicum and M. roseus produce a mixture of volatile antimicrobials that effectively inhibit and kill a wide spectrum of fungi and bacteria. In certain embodiments of the present invention, the above fungi and/or the genes providing for their anti-bacterial characteristics, are employed as part of a skin microbiome agent such that particularly undesired bacteria that might otherwise thrive on an individual's skin, will be killed or reduced in population.

While specific embodiments and applications of the present invention have been illustrated and described, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited to the precise configuration and components disclosed herein. Various modifications, changes, and variations which will be apparent to those skilled in the art may be made in the arrangement, operation, and details of the methods and systems of the present invention disclosed herein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. It is important, therefore, that the claims be regarded as including any such equivalent construction insofar as they do not depart from the spirit and scope of the present invention.

It has been observed by the present inventors that producing Haiku resembles the generation of a patent claim. There is requisite structure, a need to communicate substance and an ethereal quality of understanding. As one of skill in the art of both biology and haiku will appreciate with respect to skin:

Within it we are

Without it we cannot be

Guardian for life.

Checkpoint inhibition, namely PD1/PD-L1 pathway inhibition, has shown impressive results in many tumor types. One aspect of the present invention relates to the provision of checkpoint inhibitors in conjunction with bacterial formulations modified to express p53 and/or tomatidine. As the immune system is critically involved in the development, structural nature and progression of certain cancers, an inflammatory environment is believed to be related to tumor development. Chronic inflammation occurs due to tumor environment stress and the tumor microenvironment resembles an inflammation site, with metastatic sites creating a cytokine milieu conducive to tumor growth. In particular embodiments of the present invention, controlling cytokines is desired at particular sites of an individual's body, rather than systemic control of cytokines. Cytokines of the TNF family regulate a wide range of different immune defense mechanisms, both of the innate and the adaptive types. However, when acting in excess, they can cause significant damage. The ligands of the TNF family are cell-bound transmembrane proteins and thus exert their effects largely by affecting only cells that are located adjacently to the ligand-producing cell. Selective suppression of the ligand producing cells in situations where the ligand plays a pathogenic role forms one aspect of various embodiments of the present invention, such as where destruction of cells producing a cytokine may be preferable over mere attempts to achieve direct blocking of the function of the cytokine molecules. Destruction of cytokine-producing cells prevents further synthesis of the cytokines and provides durable protection. Blocking circulating cytokines affects the whole body. Destruction of cytokine-producing cells, in contrast, may be restricted to a particular site in the body while maintaining beneficial effects of the cytokine at other sites. Using the methods and systems as described herein, the direct and local administration of agents, such as p53, statins, tomatidine, rapamycin, etc. can be employed to achieve the desired non-systemic administration of such agents to tissues.

In some embodiments, methods further comprise administering to the subject an immune checkpoint inhibitor via cells within an individual's microbiome. Use of CRISPR-Cas systems to modify desired bacteria or other microbes to produce desired amounts of such inhibitors is thus one aspect of the preset invention. In some embodiments, the immune checkpoint inhibitor is a protein or polypeptide that specifically binds to an immune checkpoint protein. In some embodiments, the immune checkpoint protein is selected from the group consisting of CTLA4, PD-1, PD-L1, PD-L2, A2AR, B7-H3, B7-H4, BTLA, KIR, LAG3, TIM-3 or VISTA. In some embodiments, the polypeptide or protein is an antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof. In some embodiments, the immune checkpoint inhibitor is an interfering nucleic acid molecule. In some embodiments, the interfering nucleic acid molecule is an siRNA molecule, an shRNA molecule or an antisense RNA molecule. In some embodiments, the immune checkpoint inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of nivolumab, pembrolizumab, pidilizumab, AMP-224, AMP-514, STI-A1110, TSR-042, RG-7446, BMS-936559, BMS-936558, MK-3475, CT O11, MPDL3280A, MEDI-4736, MSB-0020718C, AUR-012 and STI-A1010. In some embodiments, the immune checkpoint inhibitor is administered before the bacterial formulation. In some embodiments, the immune checkpoint inhibitor is administered at least one day before the bacterial formulation. In some embodiments, the immune checkpoint is administered at about the same time as the bacterial formulation. In some embodiments, the immune checkpoint inhibitor is administered on the same day as the bacterial formulation. In some embodiments, the immune checkpoint inhibitor is administered after the bacterial formulation. In some embodiments, the immune checkpoint inhibitor is administered at least one day after the bacterial formulation. In some embodiments, the immune checkpoint inhibitor is administered by injection. In some embodiments, the injection is an intravenous, intramuscular, intratumoral or subcutaneous injection.

Therefore, in some embodiments, the invention is directed to a system and method of treating cancer in a human subject comprising administering to the subject an immune checkpoint inhibitor via the expression thereof by an individual's microbiome, and includes, for example, expression using bacteria of the genera Bifidobacterium. Using CRISPR-Cas systems, one is able to achieve expression of genes and gene products in prokaryotic cells that provide desired amounts of checkpoint inhibitors to a person so as to effectively treat various forms of cancer. In such a manner, aspects of the present invention take advantage of the commensal relationship between the human host and the microbiome for the targeted delivery of nucleic acid therapies. In certain embodiments, employing the methods set forth herein one is able to deliver nucleic acids to program bacteria for expression of therapeutic proteins and RNA molecules in vivo at sites of greatest significance for a particular disease, thus providing for higher local concentrations of therapeutic products while reducing off-target effects.

The foregoing has outlined rather broadly various pertinent and important features of various embodiments of the present invention. Such description is, however, not to be considered as limiting the invention in any way. The invention is capable of other embodiments and of being practiced and carried out in various ways which will become obvious to those skilled in the art who read this specification. Also, it is to be understood that the phraseology and terminology employed herein are for the purpose of description and should not be regarded as limiting of the invention in any fashion. It is important, therefore, that the claims be regarded as including any such equivalent construction insofar as they do not depart from the spirit and scope of the present invention. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of reducing the likelihood of skin cancer in an individual human being, said method comprising: administering a therapeutically effective amount of a bacterial formulation comprising Nitrosomonas eutropha adapted to produce p53, said bacterial formulation comprising a lotion, ointment or gel adapted to be rubbed onto a region of an individual's skin wherein at least some bacteria in the bacterial formulation have been modified by using a using a clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) CRISPR associated protein (Cas) system or a CRISPR from Prevotella and Francisella 1(Cpf1) system to remove a virulence factor of the at least some bacteria.
 2. The method as set forth in claim 1, wherein the bacterial formulation further includes Propionibacterium bacteria.
 3. The method as set forth in claim 1, further comprising administering to the skin an extract derived from a helminth selected from the group consisting of Capillaria hepatica, Dicrocoelium dendriticum, Ascaris lumbricoides, Enterobius vermicularis, Trichuris trichiura, Ancylostoma duodenale, Necator americanus, Strongyloides stercoralis, Haemonchus contortus, and Trichinella spiral's.
 4. The method as set forth in claim 1, wherein the bacterial formulation includes at least one arabinogalactan.
 5. The method as set forth in claim 1, wherein the bacterial formulation includes Lactobacillus johnsonii.
 6. The method as set forth in claim 1, wherein the bacterial formulation comprises a topical lotion that comprises at least one of Lactobacillus johnsonii, and Bifidobacterium lognum bacteria.
 7. The method as set forth in claim 6, wherein the topical lotion is administered to an individual's skin as a probiotic bacteriotherapy to treat skin diseases selected from the group consisting of eczema, atopic dermatitis, acne, allergic inflammation, and skin hypersensitivity.
 8. The method as set forth in claim 6, wherein the topical lotion is administered to an individual's skin as a probiotic bacteriotherapy to treat ultra-violet-induced skin damage.
 9. The method as set forth in claim 1, wherein the bacterial formulation comprises proteins produced by said bacterial formulation.
 10. The method as set forth in claim 1, wherein the bacterial formulation enhances protection of skin from harmful ultra-violet radiation.
 11. The method as set forth in claim 1, wherein the bacterial formulation comprises a bifidobacterium strain.
 12. A method of reducing the likelihood of skin cancer in an individual human being, said method comprising: administering a therapeutically effective amount of a bacterial formulation comprising Nitrosomonas eutropha adapted to produce p53, said bacterial formulation including a bifidobacterium strain modified by using a using a clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) CRISPR associated protein (Cas) system or a CRISPR from Prevotella and Francisella 1 (Cpf1) system to remove a virulence factor.
 13. The method as set forth in claim 12, wherein the bacterial formulation further includes Propionibacterium bacteria.
 14. A method of reducing the likelihood of skin cancer in an individual human being, said method comprising: administering a therapeutically effective amount of a bacterial formulation comprising Nitrosomonas eutropha adapted to produce p53, said bacterial formulation comprising Propionibacterium bacteria, wherein the Propionibacterium bacteria is modified by using a using a clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) CRISPR associated protein (Cas) system or a CRISPR from Prevotella and Francisella 1(Cpf1) system to remove a virulence factor.
 15. The method as set forth in claim 14, wherein the bacterial formulation is administered to an individual's skin as a probiotic bacteriotherapy to treat skin diseases selected from the group consisting of eczema, atopic dermatitis, acne, allergic inflammation, and skin hypersensitivity.
 16. The method as set forth in claim 14, further comprising administering to the skin an extract derived from a helminth selected from the group consisting of Capillaria hepatica, Dicrocoelium dendriticum, Ascaris lumbricoides, Enterobius vermicularis, Trichuris trichiura, Ancylostoma duodenale, Necator americanus, Strongyloides stercoralis, Haemonchus contortus, and Trichinella spiralis.
 17. The method as set forth in claim 14, wherein the bacterial formulation comprises a topical lotion that comprises at least one of Lactobacillus johnsonii, and Bifidobacterium lognum bacteria.
 18. The method as set forth in claim 14, wherein the bacterial formulation includes at least one arabinogalactan.
 19. A method of reducing the likelihood of skin cancer in an individual human being, said method comprising: administering a therapeutically effective amount of a bacterial formulation comprising Nitrosomonas eutropha adapted to produce p53, said bacterial formulation comprising Propionibacterium bacteria, wherein the Propionibacterium bacteria is modified by using a using a clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) CRISPR associated protein (Cas) system or a CRISPR from Prevotella and Francisella 1 (Cpf1) system to remove a virulence factor, and administering to the individual human being an immune checkpoint inhibitor.
 20. The method as set forth in claim 19, wherein the immune checkpoint inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of nivolumab, pembrolizumab, pidilizumab, AMP-224, AMP-514, STI-A1110, TSR-042, RG-7446, BMS-936559, MEDI-4736, MSB-0020718C, AUR-012 and STI-A1010. 